PLATE  I. 


A    MANUAL 


FOR   THE 


STUDY    OF    INSECTS 


JOHN    HENRY    COMSTOCK 

Professor  of  Entomology  in  Cornell  University  and  in 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 


ANNA    BOTSFORD    COMSTOCK 

Member    of  the    Society    of  American    Wood-Engravers 


ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

COMSTOCK     PUBLISHING     COMPANY 
1895 


Copyright,  1895, 
JOHN  HENRY  COMSTOCK. 


PREFACE. 


FOR  many  years  the  most  pressing  demand  of  teachers 
and  learners  in  entomology  in  this  country  has  been  for  a 
handbook  by  means  of  which  the  names  and  relative  affini- 
ties of  insects  may  be  determined  in  some  such  way  as 
plants  are  classified  by  the  aid  of  the  well-known  manuals 
of  botany.  But,  as  the  science  of  entomology  is  still  in  its 
infancy,  the  preparation  of  such  a  handbook  has  been  im- 
possible. Excellent  treatises  on  particular  groups  of  insects 
have  been  published  ;  but  no  general  work  including  analyt- 
ical keys  to  all  the  orders  and  families  has  appeared.  It  is 
to  meet  this  need  that  this  work  has  been  prepared. 

The  reader  must  not  expect,  however,  to  find  that  de- 
gree of  completeness  in  this  work  which  exists  in  the  man- 
uals of  flowering  plants.  The  number  of  species  of  insects 
is  so  great  that  a  work  including  adequate  descriptions  of  all 
those  occurring  in  our  fauna  would  rival  in  size  one  of  the 
larger  encyclopaedias.  It  is  obvious  that  such  a  work  is  not 
what  is  needed  by  the  teachers  and  students  in  our  schools, 
even  if  it  were  possible  to  prepare  it.  An  elementary  work 
on  systematic  entomology  will  always  of  necessity  be  re- 
stricted to  a  discussion  of  the  characteristics  of  the  orders 
and  families,  and  descriptions  of  a  few  species  as  illustrations. 
Complete  synopses  of  species  will  be  appropriate  only  in 
works  treating  of  limited  groups.  It  is  believed,  therefore, 
that  it  would  not  be  wise  to  materially  change  the  scope  of 

iii 


IV  PREFACE. 

the  present  work  even  if  it  were  possible  to  describe  all  of 
our  species. 

Although  much  pains  has  been  taken  to  render  easy  the 
classification  of  specimens,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  give 
the  mere  determination  of  the  names  of  insects  a  very  sub- 
ordinate place.  The  groups  of  insects  have  been  fully  char- 
acterized, so  that  their  relative  affinities  may  be  learned  ; 
and  much  space  has  been  given  to  accounts  of  the  habits 
and  transformations  of  the  forms  described.  As  the  needs 
of  agricultural  students  have  been  kept  constantly  in  view, 
those  species  that  are  of  economic  importance  have  been 
described  as  fully  as  practicable,  and  particular  attention  has 
been  given  to  descriptions  of  the  methods  of  destroying 
those  that  are  noxious,  or  of  preventing  their  ravages. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  simplify  the  study  of  in- 
sects as  much  as  possible  without  sacrificing  accuracy  in  the 
descriptions.  Only  such  morphological  terms  have  been 
used  as  were  necessary  to  accomplish  the  object  of  the  book 
in  a  satisfactory  manner.  And  so  far  as  possible  a  uniform 
nomenclature  has  been  used  for  all  orders  of  insects.  The 
fact  that  writers  on  each  order  of  insects  have  a  peculiar 
nomenclature  has  been  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  progress  of 
entomology ;  this  is  especially  true  as  regards  the  nomen- 
clature of  the  wing-veins.  It  has  been  necessary  for  the 
student  in  passing  from  the  study  of  one  order  of  insects 'to 
that  of  another  to  learn  a  new  set  of  terms ;  and  in  many 
cases  writers  on  a  single  family  have  a  peculiar  nomenclature. 

The  present  writer  has  endeavored  to  remove  this 
obstacle  by  making  a  serious  study  of  the  homologies  of  the 
wing-veins,  and  by  applying  the  same  term  throughout  the 
work  to  homologous  veins.  The  result  is  that  the  student 
is  required  to  learn  only  one  set  of  terms  ;  and  in  applying 
these  terms  there  will  be  brought  to  his  attention'in  a  forci- 
ble manner  the  peculiar  modifications  of  structure  charac- 
teristic of  each  order  of  insects.  Heretofore,  with  a  differ- 
ent nomenclature  for  the  wing-veins  of  each  order  such  a 


PREFACE.  V 

comparative  study  of  the  various  methods  of  specialization 
has  been  beyond  the  read  of  any  but  the  most  advanced 
scholars. 

The  principal  features  of  the  method  of  notation  of 
wing-veins  proposed  by  Josef  Redtenbacher  has  been 
adopted.  But  as  the  writer's  views  regarding  the  structure 
of  the  wings  of  primitive  insects  is  very  different  from  those 
of  Redtenbacher,  the  nomenclature  proposed  in  this  book  is 
to  a  great  extent  original.  The  chief  point  of  difference 
arises  from  the  belief  by  the  present  writer  that  veins  IV 
and  VI  do  not  exist  in  the  Lepidoptera,  Diptera,  and 
Hymenoptera  ;  and  that,  in  those  orders  where  they  do  exist, 
they  are  secondary  developments.  The  reasons  for  this  be- 
lief are  set  forth  at  length  in  my  essay  on  Evolution  and 
Taxonomy. 

In  this  essay  there  was  proposed  a  new  classification  of 
the  Lepidoptera,  which  was  the  result  of  an  effort  to  work 
out  the  phylogeny  of  the  divisions  of  this  order.  This  classi- 
fication has  been  further  elaborated  in  the  present  work.  In 
the  other  orders  but  few  changes  have  been  made  from  the 
more  generally  accepted  classifications.  It  is  more  than 
probable  however,  that  when  the  taxonomic  principles  upon 
which  this  classification  of  the  Lepidoptera  is  based  are  ap- 
plied to  the  classification  of  the  other  orders  radical  changes 
will  be  found  to  be  necessary. 

A  serious  obstacle  to  the  popularization  of  Natural  His- 
tory is  the  technical  names  that  it  is  necessary  to  use.  In 
order  to  reduce  this  difficulty  to  a  minimum  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  all  of  the  Latin  terms  used  has  been  indicated,  by 
dividing  each  into  syllables  and  marking  the  accented 
syllable.  In  doing  this  the  well-established  rules  for  the 
division  of  Latin  words  into  syllables  have  been  followed. 
It  seems  necessary  to  state  this  fact  in  order  to  account  for 
differences  which  exist  between  the  pronunciations  given 
here  and  some  of  those  in  certain  large  dictionaries  recently 
published  in  this  country. 


VI  PREFACE. 

Nearly  all  of  the  wood-cuts  have  been  engraved  from 
nature  by  the  Junior  Author.  As  the  skill  which  she  has 
attained  in  this  art  has  been  acquired  during  the  progress 
of  the  work  on  this  book,  some  of  the  earlier-made  illustra- 
tions do  not  fairly  represent  her  present  standing  as  an 
engraver.  But  it  does  not  seem  worth  while  to  delay  the 
appearance  of  the  book  in  order  to  re-engrave  these  figures; 
especially  as  it  is  believed  that  they  will  not  be  found  lack- 
ing in  scientific  accuracy.  The  generous  appreciation  which 
the  best  engravers  have  shown  towards  the  greater  part  of 
the  work  leads  us  to  hope  that  it  will  be  welcomed  as  an 
important  addition  to  entomological  illustrations. 

Although  the  chief  work  of  the  Junior  Author  has  been 
with  the  pencil  and  graver,  many  parts  of  the  text  are  from 
her  pen.  But  in  justice  to  her  it  should  be  said  that  the 
plan  of  the  book  was  changed  after  she  had  finished  her 
writing.  It  was  intended  at  first  to  make  the  book  of  a 
much  more  elementary  nature  than  it  is  in  its  final  form. 
It  has  seemed  best,  however,  to  leave  these  parts  as  written 
in  order  that  the  work  may  be  of  interest  to  a  wider  range 
-of  readers  than  it  would  be  were  it  restricted  to  a  uniform 
style  of  treatment. 

The  figures  illustrating  the  venation  of  the  wings  of  in- 
sects have  been  drawn  with  great  care  under  the  writer's 
direction  by  Mr.  E.  P.  Felt  and  Mr.  R.  H.  Pettit.  About 
one  half  of  those  in  the  chapter  on  Lepidoptera  were  drawn 
by  Mr.  Felt  ;  the  others  in  this  chapter  and  those  in  the 
chapters  on  Diptera  and  Hymenoptera  were  drawn  by  Mr. 
Pettit. 

I  wish  also  to  acknowledge  the  help  of  my  Assistant  Mr. 
A.  D.  MacGillivray,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  much  aid  in 
bibliographical  researches  and  in  many  other  ways ;  also, 
that  of  Dr.  A.  C.  White  of  the  Cornell  University  Library, 
who  has  generously  given  much  time  to  determining  the 
etymologies  of  many  of  the  more  obscure  words  the  pro- 
nunciations of  which  are  indicated  in  the  text. 


PREFACE.  Vli 


To  the  authorities  of  Cornell  University  the  authors  of 
this  book  are  under  deep  obligation  for  aid  and  encourage- 
ment. The  preparation  of  the  work  would  not  have  been 
possible  but  for  the  liberal  grants  which  they  have  made  for 
the  purchase  of  specimens  and  books. 


JOHN  HENRY  COMSTOCK. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  LABORATORY, 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY, 

December,  1894. 


CONTENTS. 


I.  Zoological  Classification  and  Zoological  Nomenclature...  i 

II.  Insects  and  their  Near  Relatives  :  Branch  ARTHROPODA  ; 

Class    CRUSTACEA,   Crabs,    Lobsters,   Crayfish,    and 

Others;  Class  ARACHNIDA,  Spiders,  Scorpions,  Mites, 

and  Others;  and  Class  MYRIAPODA,  Centipedes  and 

Millipedes 9 

III.  Class  HEXAPODA  or  Insects:  Characteristics  of  the  Class; 
Metamorphoses  of  Insects  ;  External  Anatomy  of  In- 
sects ;  Internal  Anatomy  of  Insects ;  Table  for  Deter- 
mining the  Orders  of  Insects ;  List  of  the  Orders  of 

Insects 48 

'    IV.  Order    THYSANURA,    Bristle-tails,    Spring-tails,     Fish- 
moths,  and  Others 82 

V\Order  EPHEMERIDA,  May-flies 86 

VI.  Order  ODONATA,  Dragon-flies : 89 

VII.  Order  PLECOPTERA,  Stone-flies 93 

VIII.  Order  ISOPODA,  Termites  or  White-ants 95 

IX.  Order  CORRODENTIA,  Book-lice  and  Others 98 

X.  Order  MALLOPHAGA,  Bir4~lice 100 

XI.  Order  DERMAPTERA  Earwigs 102 

XII.  Order  ORTHOPTERA,  Cockroaches,  Crickets,  Grasshop- 
pers, Locusts,  and  Others 104 

XIII.  -Order  PHYSOPODA,  Thrips 119 

XIV.  Order    HEMIPTERA,    Bugs,   Plant-lice,    Bark-lice,    and 

Others 121 

XV.  Order  NEUROPTERA,  the  Dobson  and  Others 175 

XVI.  Order  MECAPTERA,  Scorpion-flies 184 

XVII.  Order  TRICHOPTERA,  Caddice-flies 186 

XVIII.  Order  LEPIDOPTERA,  Moths,  Skippers,  and  Butterflies..  191 

XIX.  Order  DIPTERA,  Flies 413 

XX.  Order  SIPHONAPTERA,  Fleas 490 

XXI.  Order  COLEOPTERA,  Beetles 494 

XXII.  Order  HYMENOPTERA  Bees,  Wasps,  Ants,  and  Others. .  599 

INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY —  679 

ix 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATES. 


PLATE   I.      (FRONTISPIECE.) 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1.  The  Carpet  Beetle 539 

2.  The  Twelve-spotted  Diabrotica 577 

3.  The  Adalia  bipunctata 535 

4.  The  Silver-spotted  Skipper 370 

5.  The  American  Copper 390 

6.  The  Red  Admiral 401 

7.  The  Painted  Beauty 401 

PLATE  II.     (PAGE  68.) 

THE   INTERNAL    ANATOMY   OF   A   CATERPILLAR. 

PLATE  III.     (PAGE  70.) 

THE  INTERNAL   ANATOMY   OF  A   COCKROACH. 

PLATE  IV.    (PAGE  343.) 

PSEUDOHAZIS   HERA. 

PLATE  V.     (PAGE  353.) 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1.  The  Luna  Moth 353 

2.  The  Crinkled  Flannel-moth , 218 

PLATE  VI.     (PAGE  389.) 

1.  The  Spring  Azure 391 

2.  The  Green  Comma 404 

3.  The  Hop-merchant 405 

4.  The  Banded  Elfin 393 

5.  The  Mourning-cloak 403 

6.  The  Olive  Hair-streak , 393 

7.  The  Spring  Azure 391 

8.  The  Violet  Tip -. 405 


A    MANUAL   FOR 

THE   STUDY   OF   INSECTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ZOOLOGICAL  CLASSIFICATION  AND  NOMENCLATURE. 
I.    Zoological  Classification. 

(For  advanced  students. ) 

IN  order  that  the  myriad  forms  of  animals  may  be  studied  with 
facility  some  system  of  classification  is  necessary.  And  now  that  we 
have  learned  that  there  exists  a  blood-relationship  between  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  animals,  that  system  which  most  clearly  expresses  this 
relationship  is  doubtless  the  best.  This  system  is  termed  the  Natural 
Classification . 

It  is  now  generally  believed  that  long  ago,  in  early  geological 
times,  there  existed  on  the  earth  only  very  simple  animals  and  plants; 
and  that  from  these  simple  beginnings  more  and  more  complex  forms 
have  been  developed.  This  growth  in  complexity  has  taken  place  in 
different  descendants  of  these  simple  primitive  beings  in  very  differ- 
ent ways.  Thus  while  it  is  probable  that  the  first  animals  lived  in 
water,  and  very  many  still  do  so,  others  have  become  adapted  to  life 
on  the  land,  and  in  still  others  organs  have  been  developed  by  which 
they  can  fly  through  the  air.  And  under  each  of  these  conditions  we 
find  a  great  diversity  of  forms,  each  fitted  for  some  special  mode  of 
life. 


2  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  diversity  of  forms  of  animal  life  is  much  greater  than  is  com- 
monly supposed.  A  competent  authority  has  estimated  that  there 
are  now  living  on  the  earth  more  than  one  million  species  of  animals. 
And  these  are  merely  the  surviving  descendants  of  immense  series 
of  beings  that  have  existed  in  past  geological  times,  the  remaining 
tips  of  a  great  genealogical  tree,  of  which  many  twigs  and  branches 
have  perished. 

The  common  figurative  use  of  the  word  tree  in  this  connection 
expresses  well  the  convergence  of  the  lines  of  descent  toward  the 
common  ancestor  from  which  existing  forms  have  descended.  But 
in  one  respect  it  may  be  misleading.  If  an  ordinary  tree  be  ex- 
amined, the  tip  of  one  branch  will  closely  resemble  that  of  any  other 
branch  of  the  same  tree.  But  in  this  figurative  genealogical  tree 
we  must  imagine  a  very  different  state  of  affairs.  Here  the  law  of 
growth  is  constant  change ;  each  branch  grows  in  its  own  individual 
way;  and  each  twig  of  each  branch  bears  fruit  peculiar  to  itself. 
The  changes,  however,  are  gradual ;  and  thus  the  tips  of  closely-con- 
nected twigs  will  be  similar  though  not  identical ;  while  the  tips  of 
two  branches  that  separated  early  in  the  growth  of  the  tree  will  be 
very  different. 

It  is  the  effort  of  the  systematist,  one  who  studies  the  classification 
of  animals  and  plants,  to  work  out  the  relations  which  exist  between 
the  various  tips  of  the  genealogical  tree.  This  study  when  carried 
to  its  fullest  extent  includes  not  only  the  study  of  existing  forms  of 
life,  but  also  the  study  of  those  that  have  perished,  the  trunk-forms 
from  which  existing  forms  have  descended.  This,  however,  is  a  very 
difficult  matter;  and  as  yet  only  the  beginnings  of  the  Natural 
Classification  have  been  made.  See  pp.  139  to  204. 

If  we  accept  this  theory  of  descent,  now  almost  universally  ac- 
cepted by  naturalists,  it  is  evident  that  when  we  take  into  account 
all  the  forms  of  life  that  have  existed  we  cannot  classify  animals  into 
well-marked  groups;  for  as  the  modification  in  form  is  gradual,  series 
of  connecting  links  have  existed  between  any  two  forms  that  might 
be  selected. 

But  practically  the  student  that  confines  his  attention  to  the 
study  of  living  forms  can  classify  these  forms  into  more  or  less  well- 
marked  groups,  for  many  of  the  connecting  links  have  perished ;  in 
fact,  the  groups  of  living  animals  and  plants  are  so  distinct  that  it  is 
only  in  recent  years  that  naturalists  have  come  to  understand  the 
blood-relationship  referred  to  above. 

We  find  that  the  Animal  and  Vegetable  Kingdoms  are  made  up  of 
a  vast  assemblage  of  individuals,  each  the  offspring  of  parents  similar 


ZOOLOGICAL   CLASSIFICATION.  3 

to  itself,  and  each  in  turn  producing  similar  offspring.  Although  the 
offspring  is  never  exactly  like  either  parent,  the  degree  of  variation  in 
a  single  generation  is  slight.  And  thus  we  find  that  there  exist  large 
numbers  of  individuals  which  very  closely  resemble  each  other.  Such 
a  collection  of  individuals  is  termed  in  popular  language  a  kind,  in 
scientific  language  a  species.  Thus  the  kind  of  pine  trees  known  as 
pitch-pine  is  a  species;  and  scrub-pine,  still  another.  In  the  same 
way  the  name  sparrow-hawk  indicates  a  kind  or  species  of  hawk;  and 
pigeon-hawk,  another  species. 

Roughly  speaking,  a  species  is  a  collection  of  individuals  which 
resemble  each  other  as  closely  as  the  offspring  of  a  single 
parent.  For  example,  if  any  two  pitch-pines  be  studied,  nothing  will 
be  found  to  indicate  that  they  may  not  have  sprung  from  seeds 
grown  upon  the  same  tree.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  pitch-pine  and 
a  white-pine  be  carefully  compared,  they  will  be  found  so  different 
that  no  competent  observer  would  believe  that  they  had  a  common 
parent. 

Unfortunately  this  mode  of  defining  the  limits  of  a  species  cannot 
be  depended  upon.  Many  instances  are  known  where  forms  of 
animals  or  plants  living  in  widely-separated  regions  differ  so  greatly 
that  they  have  been  considered  distinct  species  until  more  extended 
collections  in  the  intermediate  regions  have  brought  to  light  series 
of  intermediate  forms,  which  connect  the  two  so-called  species  so 
closely  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  where  the  one  ends  and  the  other 
begins. 

The  only  definite  way  of  determining  whether  two  forms  are 
specifically  distinct  is  to  determine  whether  they  naturally  interbreed 
or  not.  We  find  among  wild  animals  a  sort  of  race  prejudice  which 
keeps  the  members  of  different  species  from  pairing,  although  they 
may  do  so  when  demoralized  by  domestication.  Except  in  the  case 
of  very-closely-allied  species,  the  pairing  of  individuals  of  different 
species  results  in  no  offspring  or  in  the  production  of  sterile  offspring. 

This  grouping  of  individuals  into  species  not  only  facilitates  our 
study  of  Natural  History,  but  expresses  certain  important  facts  of 
inheritance  and  reproduction.  A  second  and  somewhat  similar  step 
is  made  by  grouping  species  into  genera. 

We  find  that  there  exist  groups  of  closely-allied  species,  species 
that  resemble  each  other  in  all  of  the  more  important  characters,  and 
differ  among  themselves  only  in  what  are  known  as  the  specific 
characters.  Such  a  group  of  species  is  termed  a  genus.  Thus  all  the 
different  species  of  pine  taken  together  constitute  the  genus  pine,  or 
Pinus,  as  it  is  termed  by  botanists.  There  are  many  species  of  oak, 


4  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

as  red-oak,  live-oak,  and  water-oak.  All  of  the  species  of  oak  taken 
together  constitute  the  genus  Querciis  of  botanists.  Several  species 
of  hawks  and  falcons  are  classed  together  by  zoologists  as  the  genus 
Falco. 

The  genera  in  turn  are  grouped  into  families.  Thus  the  pines, 
the  spruces,  and  the  larches  resemble  each  other  quite  closely,  and 
are  classed  together  as  the  Pine  Family  (Abietinece) ;  the  falcons, 
hawks,  kites,  and  eagles  are  classed  together  as  the  Falcon  Family 
(Falconidce). 

Closely-allied  families  are  grouped  together  to  form  orders.  The 
Pine  Family,  the  Cypress  Family,  and  the  Yew  Family  comprise  the 
Order  Conifera,  or  cone-bearing  plants,  of  botanists.  The  Owl  Fam- 
ily (Strigidce),  the  Falcon  Family  (Falconidce),  and  the  Vulture  Family 
(  Vulturida)  constitute  the  Order  Raptores,  or  Birds  of  Prey. 

Closely-allied  orders  are  grouped  together  to  form  classes.  Thus 
all  the  orders  of  birds  taken  together  constitute  the  Class  Aves  or 
Birds. 

The  classes  are  grouped  into  branches,  which  are  the  principal 
divisions  of  the  Animal  Kingdom.*  In  studying  the  different  forms 
of  animals  it  is  found  that  there  are  several  distinct  types  of  structure. 
Some  animals  are  built  upon  one  plan  or  structure,  and  others  on 
other  plans.  All  animals  built  on  the  same  plan  are  said  to  belong  to 
the  same  Branch.  Thus  the  back-boned  animals  comprise  the  Branch 
Vertebrata  ;  the  clams,  oysters,  snails,  cuttle-fish,  and  certain  other 
allied  forms  comprise  the  Branch  Mollusca  ;  and  the  insects,  spiders, 
centipedes,  lobsters,  and  their  near  relatives  comprise  the  Branch 
Arthropoda. 

All  the  branches  of  animals  taken  together  constitute  the  Animal 
Kingdom. 

It  is  not  possible  to  lay  down  rules  by  which  these  different  groups 
of  animals  can  be  limited.  For,  as  has  been  shown  in  our  discussion 
of  species,  all  have  been  connected  in  past  time  by  intermediate  forms 
But  notwithstanding  this,  each  of  the  terms  given  above  (Branch, 
Class,  Order,  Family,  Genus,  and  Species)  expresses  a  pretty  definite 
conception,  which  the  student  will  learn  to  comprehend  by  practice 
in  classifying  animals.  But  the  sequence  in  rank  of  these  groups 
should  be  learned  at  the  outset.  Beginning  with  the  most  compre- 
hensive it  is  as  follows : 

*  The  principal  divisions  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom  are  not  termed 
Branches  ;  hence  we  will  not  make  further  use  of  botanical  illustrations  in 
this  connection. 


ZOOLOGICAL  NOMENCLATURE. 

Animal  Kingdom. 

Branch:  or  Subkrngdom. 
Class. 
Order. 


Genus. 
Species. 
Individual. 

It  is  sometime  desirable  to  indicate  other  groups  than  those  named 
above.  Thus  a  family  may  be  divided  into  subfamilies,  or  an  order 
into  suborders.  And  occasionally  an  even  more  minute  division  is 
made.  Thus  several  closely-allied  families  may  be  grouped  together 
as  a  superfamily,  a  group  of  lower  rank  than  a  suborder.  The  follow- 
ing table  includes  all  the  grades  of  groups  now  commonly  employed  : 

Kingdom. 

Branch  or  Subkingdom. 
Class. 
Subclass. 
Superorder. 
Ojder. 
Suborder. 
Superfamily. 
Family. 
Subfamily. 
Genus. 
Subgenus. 
Species. 
Subspecies. 
Variety. 
Individual. 

II.  Zoological  Nomenclature. 

(For  advanced  students.) 

At  the  beginning  of  his  studies  of  Natural  History  the  student  is 
met  with  what  is  to  him  a  new  and  strange  set  of  names.  These 
names  are  often  long.  In  form  they  belong  to  a  dead  language,  with 
which,  in  these  days,  even  many  educated  people  are  unfamiliar.  It 
is  not  strange  that  we  often  hear  complaint  respecting  the  difficulty  of 
this  nomenclature. 


O  THE   STUD  Y  OF  1ATSECTS. 

A  little  study  of  the  matter,  however,  is  sufficient  to  show  the 
necessity  for  scientific  names.  The  common  names  of  animals  will 
not  answer  our  purpose  ;  for  the  same  name  is  often  applied  to  widely 
different  animals  in  different  localities,  while  a  single  species  of  animal 
is  known  by  totally  different  names  in  different  sections  of  the  country. 

In  order  that  information  respecting  animals  may  be  recorded  so 
that  there  need  not  be  any  doubt  regarding  the  animal  to  which  refer- 
ence is  made,  it  is  necessary  that  each  species  or  group  of  species 
should  have  a  distinct  name  by  which  it  shall  be  known  by  naturalists 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Therefore,  to  each  branch,  class,  order, 
family,  genus,  and  species  which  has  been  described  there  has  been 
given  a  special  name,  by  which  it  is  known,  and  which  pertains  to  this 
group  alone. 

As  this  nomenclature  is  used  by  all  naturalists  of  whatever  nation- 
ality, it  is  necessary  that  the  names  should  be  in  a  language  which 
can  be  understood  by  all.  As  Latin  was  the  language  in  which  most 
scientific  books  were  written  at  the  time  this  nomenclature  was  estab- 
lished, that  language  was  chosen  as  the  universal  language  of  science; 
and  the  rule  has  been  adopted  that  all  names  of  animals  and  plants 
shall  be  Latin,  or  Latin  in  form. 

The  name  of  a  species  consists  of  two  words — the  name  of  the 
genus  to  which  the  species  belongs,  followed  by  an  adjective  indicat- 
ing the  particular  species  ;  for  in  Latin  an  adjective  follows  the  noun 
which  it  qualifies,  instead  of  preceding  it  as  in  English.  Thus  the 
scientific  name  of  the  Pigeon-hawk  is  Falco  columbartus;  that  of  the 
Sparrow-hawk  is  Falco  spar-verius ;  and  that  of  the  Prairie-falcon  is 
Falco  mexicanus. 

In  the  case  of  many  species  we  find  well-marked  subspecies  or 
geographical  races  which  it  is  desirable  to  distinguish  by  name.  Thus 
the  Pigeon-hawk  occurs  over  the  whole  of  North  America.  But  we 
^California  to  Sitka,  constitute  a  distinct  geographical  race  known  as 
the  Black  Merlin.  As  the  Black  Merlin  and  the  typical  Pigeon-hawk 
intergrade,  they  constitute  a  single  species,  which  is  known  as  Falco 
columbarins.  To  the  Black  Merlin  has  been  applied  the  subspecific 
name  suckleyt.  When,  therefore,  it  is  desired  to  refer  to  the  Black 
Merlin  as  distinguished  from  the  typical  Pigeon-hawk  the  term 
Falco  columbartus  suckleyt  is  used.  If  reference  is  to  be  made  to  the 
typical  Pigeon-hawk  as  distinguished  from  the  Black  Merlin,  it  is 
designated  as  Falco  columbarius  columbartus. 

In  writing  long  names  like  those  given  above  they  are  frequently 


ZOOLOGICAL  NOMENCLATURE.  J 

abbreviated  if  the  context  is  such  that  the  abbreviations  will  be  read- 
ily understood.  Thus  the  name  of  the  Black  Merlin  may  be  written 
Falco  c.  suck  ley  i  or  F.  c.  sue k  ley  t. 

Subspecific  names  are  used  by  entomologists  not  only  to  distinguish 
geographical  races,  but  also  to  distinguish  the  different  forms  of 
dimorphic  and  polymorphic  species.  A  good  illustration  is  afforded 
by  a  certain  species  of  Swallow-tail  Butterfly  common  in  the  Atlantic 
States.  This  species  exists  under  two  distinct  forms ;  one  of  these  is 
yellow  marked  with  black,  and  has  long  been  known  as  Jasoniades 
lurnus  ;  the  other  is  almost  entirely  black,  and  has  been  known  as 
Jasoniades  glaucus.  At  first  it  was  supposed  that  these  were  different 
species  ;  but  in  recent  years  the  two  forms  have  been  bred  from  eggs 
laid  by  the  same  female.  It  is  thus  evident  that  the  two  forms  repre- 
sent a  single  species.  And  as  the  form  glaucus  was  first  described  its 
name  is  given  to  the  species,  which  is  now  known  as  Jasoniades 
glaucus.  This  name  Jasoniades  glaucus  is  used  when  reference  is 
made  to  the  species  as  a  whole.  But  if  one  wishes  to  refer  to  the 
black  form  alone,  it  is  distinguished  as  Jasoniades  glaucus  glaucus ; 
while  the  yellow  form  is  distinguished  as  Jasoniades  glaucus  turnus. 

In  the  illustrations  just  given  the  dimorphism  occurs  in  the  same 
generation.  But  many  instances  are  known  where  the  dimorphism  is 
seasonal.  Thus  in  the  case  of  certain  insects  which  pass  through  two 
or  more  generations  in  the  course  of  a  year,  the  different  generations, 
or  some  of  them,  differ  markedly  in  form  or  coloring  from  the  others. 
These  differences  in  many  cases  are  so  great  that  the  different  genera- 
tions of  the  same  species  were  believed  to  be  distinct  species  till  they 
were  bred  from  each  other.  It  is  therefore  often  desirable  to  distin- 
guish these  different  forms  by  subspecific  names.  Thus  iphiclides 
ajax  is  a  species  of  Swallow-tail  Butterfly  which  exists  under  three 
distinct  seasonal  forms:  an  early  spring  form,  /.  ajax  marcellus ;  a 
late  spring  form,  7.  ajax  telamonides ;  and  a  summer  form,  /.  ajax 
ajax. 

The  name  of  a  genus  or  of  a  subgenus  is  always  a  single  word, 
and  should  be  a  noun  in  the  singular  number  and  nominative  case. 

The  names  of  all  groups  of  genera  (i.e.,  families,  orders,  classes, 
and  branches)  consist  each  of  a  single  word  ;  and  this  word  should 
be  a  plural  noun  in  the  nominative  case. 

The  following  practices  regarding  the  forms  of  zoological  names 
are  now  almost  universally  followed  : 

The  names  of  all  groups  in  zoology,  from  kingdom  to  subgenus 
inclusive,  are  written  and  printed  with  a  capital  initial  letter. 


8  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Specific  and  subspecific  names  are  written  and  printed  with  a  small 
initial  letter.  Thus  in  writing  the  name  of  a  species  the  generic 
name  is  capitalized,  the  specific  name  not ;  eg.,  iphtclides  ajax. 

The  names  of  families  end  in  idee ;  the  names  of  subfamilies,  in 
ina. 

It  will  aid  the  student  greatly  in  the  pronunciation  of  family  and 
subfamily  names  to  know  that  the  /of  -idee  in  family  names  is  short, 
and  consequently  the  accent  falls  on  the  syllable  preceding  this 
letter ;  while  the  /  of  -ince  of  subfamily  names  is  long,  and  is  conse- 
quently accented.*  Numerous  examples  are  given  in  the  following 
pages. 

*  This  in  accordance  with  the  rule  of  Latin  grammar  that  in  words  of  more 
than  two  syllables  the  penult  if  long  is  accented;  but  if  the  penult  is  short  the 
accent  falls  on  the  antepenult. 


CHAPTER  II. 


INSECTS  AND  THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES. 

Branch  ARTHROPODA  (Ar-throp'o-da). 
The  Arthropods  (Arl  thro-pods). 

If  an  insect,  a  spider,  a  scorpion,  a  centipede,  or  a  lobster 
be  examined,  the  body  will  be  found  to  be  composed  of  a 
series  of  more  or  less  similar  rings  or  seg- 
ments joined  together;  and  some  of  these 
segments  will  be  found  to  bear  jointed 
legs  (Fig.  i).  All  the  animals  possessing 
these  characteristics  are  classed  together 
as  the  Branch  Arthropoda. 

A  similar  segmented  form  of  the  body 
is  found  among  worms  ;  but  these  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Arthropods  by  the 
absence  of  legs.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  many  animals  commonly  called  worms, 
as  the  tomato-worm,  apple-worm,  etc.,  are 
not  true  worms,  but  are  the  larvae  of  in- 
sects (Fig.  2).  The  angle-worm  is  the 
most  familiar  example  of  a  true  worm. 

The  Branch  Arthropoda  is  the  largest 
of  the  branches  of  the  Animal  Kingdom, 
including  many  more  known  species  than  all  the  other 
branches  taken  together.  Our  common  representatives  are 
distributed  among  four  classes:  these  are  the  Crustacea, 
the  Arachnida,  the  Myriapoda,  and  the  Hexapoda.  The 

9 


FIG.  i.— An  insect  show- 
ing segmented  form  of 
body. 


10  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

first  three  classes  are  briefly  discussed  in  this  chapter ;  the 
fourth  comprises  the  Insects,  and  is  the  subject  of  the 
remaining  parts  of  this  book. 


FIG.  2. — A  larva  of  an  insect. 

The  following   table  will  enable  the    student  to  distin- 
guish the  classes  of  the  Arthropoda.* 

TABLE   OF   CLASSES   OF  THE   ARTHROPODA. 

A.  With  two  pairs  of  antennae  and  at  least  five  pairs  of  legs.  Aquatic 
animals  breathing  by  gills,  p.  11 CRUSTACEA. 

AA.  With  one  pair  of  antennae  or  with  none.  Air-breathing  ani- 
mals. The  number  of  legs  varies  from  six  to  many. 


*The  following  is  the  method  of  using  the  analytical  tables  given  in  this 
book:  Read  carefully  the  statement  of  characteristics  given  opposite  A  and 
AA.  respectively,  and  by  examining  the  animal  to  be  classified  determine 
which  is  true  of  this  animal.  This  will  indicate  in  which  division  of  the 
table  the  name  of  the  group  to  which  the  animal  belongs  is  to  be  looked  for. 
If  this  division  of  the  table  is  subdivided,  pass  to  B  and  BB  (also  to  BBB  if 
it  occurs)  in  this  division  and  determine  in  a  like  manner  under  which  the 
animal  belongs.  Continue  in  this  way,  passing  to  the  letters  C,  D,  E,  etc.,  in 
regular  order  till  the  name  of  the  group  is  reached.  Then  turn  to  the  page 
indicated  and  read  the  description  or  the  group  given  there,  comparing  the 
specimens  with  the  description.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  an  analyt- 
ical table  is  merely  an  aid  to  the  determination  of  groups.  As  the  groups  that 
we  recognize  are  not  always  sharply  limited  in  nature,  we  cannot  expect  to 
be  able  in  every  case  to  find  characters  that  will  serve  to  distinctly  separate 
them  in  a  table.  Therefore  when  a  student  has  determined  by  the  aid  of  a 
key  to  what  group  a  species  seems  to  belong,  he  should  verify  this  determi- 
nation by  a  study  of  the  characters  of  that  group  given  in  the  detailed  dis- 
cussion of  it. 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES.  II 

B.   Without  antennae  and   with  four  pairs   of   legs,  although  the 
maxillary  palpi   are  often  leg-like   in   form,  making  the  animal 

appear  to  have  five  pairs  of  legs.     p.  12 ARACHNIDA. 

BB.  With  antennae. 
C.  With  more  than  three  pairs  of  legs ;  and  without  wings,     p. 

45 M  YRIAPODA. 

CC.  With   only   three  pairs  of  legs,  and  usually  with   wings  in 
the  adult  state,    p.48 HEXAPODA. 

Class  CRUSTACEA  (Crus-ta'ce-a). 
The  Crustaceans  (Crus-ta1  ce-ans). 

The  members  of  this  class  are  aquatic  Arthropoda,  which 
breathe  by  true  gills.  They  have  two  pairs  of  antenna  and  at 
l$ast  five  pairs  of  legs. 

The  most  familiar  illustrations  of  the  Crustacea  are  the 
Cray-fishes,  the  Lobsters, 
the  Shrimps,  and  the 
Crabs.  Cray-fishes  (Fig.  3) 
abound  in  our  brooks,  and 
are  often  improperly  called 
Crabs.  The  Lobsters,  the 
Shrimps,  and  the  true 
Crabs  live  in  salt  water. 

The  Crustaceans  are 
distinguished  from  all  oth- 
er Arthropods  by  their 
mode  of  respiration,  being 
the  only  ones  that  breathe 
by  true  gills.  Many  in- 
sects live  in  water,  and 
are  furnished  with  gill-like 

FIG.  3.-A  Cray-£sh. 

organs;     but      these     are 

tracheal  gills,  organs  which  differ  essentially  in  structure 
from  true  gills,  as  described  later,  in  the  chapter  on  Anat- 
omy of  Insects.  The  Crustacea  also  differ  from  other 
Arthropoda  in  having  two  pairs  of  antennae;  and  from  all 


12  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

except  the   Myriapoda  in   having   many  (more    than   four) 

pairs  of  legs. 

The  illustrations  named  above  are  the  more  conspicuous 
members  of  the  class ;  but  many 
other  smaller  forms  abound  both  in 
the  sea  and  in  fresh  water.  Some  of" 
the  more  minute  fresh-water  forms 
are  almost  sure  to  occur  in  any  fresh- 

FIG.  4.— Crustacea  :  a.  Cypris;  6,  . 

Cyclops;  c.Daphnia.  water  aquarium.  In  Figure  4  are 
represented  three  of  these,  greatly  enlarged. 

Among  the  Crustacea  that  live  in  damp  places  on  land 
the  Sow-bugs,  Oniscidce  (O-nis'ci-dae),  are  most  often- 
seen.  These  frequently  occur  about  water-soaked 
wood ;  and  are  often  mistaken,  by  students  begin- 
ning the  study  of  Entomology,  for  insects  or  Myria- 
pods.  Figure  5  represents  a  Sow-bug. 

On  the  sea-coast  an  immense  number  of  forms 
of  Crustacea  occur. 

Class  ARACHNIDA  (A-rach'ni-da). 
Scorpions,  Harvestmen,  Spiders,  Mites,  and  others. 

The  members  of  this  class  are  air-breathing  Arthropods,  in 
which  the  head  and  thorax  are  grown  together,  forming  a 
cephalothorax,  which  have  four  pairs  of  legs  jit  ted  for  walk- 
ing, and  which  have  no  antennce. 

The  Arachnida  abound  wherever  insects  occur,  and  are 
often  mistaken  for  insects.  But  they  can  be  easily  distin- 
guished by  the  characters  given  above,  even  in  those  cases 
where  an  exception  occurs  to  some  one  of  them.  The  more 
important  of  the  exceptions  are  the  following :  In  the  Sol- 
pugida  the  head  is  distinct  from  the  thorax ;  as  a  rule  the 
young  of  mites  have  only  six  legs,  but  a  fourth  pair  are 
added  during  growth ;  and  in  the  gall  mites  (Phytoptus)  there 
are  only  four  legs. 

In  the  Arachnida  we  find  only  simple  eyes. 

The  cephalothorax  (ceph-a-lo-tho'rax)  bears  six  pairs  of 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR   NEAR  RELATIVES. 


FIG.  6.— Lower  side  of 
cephalothorax  of  a 
spider :  md,  man- 
dible: >«.r,  maxilla; 
/>,  palpus  ;  /,  lower 
lip ;  s,  sternum. 


appendages— two  pairs  of  jaws,  and  four  pairs  of  legs.  The 
first  pair  of  jaws  are  the  mandibles  (man'di-bles),  the  second, 
the  maxilla  (max-il'lae). 

The  mandibles  (Fig.  6,  md)  lie  in  front  of  and  above  the 
mouth,  and  consist  each  of  two  or  three  segments.  They 
serve  for  seizing  prey,  and  often  also  for 
killing  it.  In  many  books  they  are  termed 
the  chelicerce  (che-lic'e-rae). 

The  maxillce(¥'\g.  6,  mx]  lie  just  behind 
the  mandibles,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
mouth.  Each  maxilla  bears  a  large  feeler 
or  palpus  (Fig.  6,  /).  These  palpi  vary 
greatly  in  form ;  frequently  they  resemble 
legs ;  hence  many  Arachnida  appear  to 
have  five  pairs  of  legs.  The  palpi  are  often 
so  largely  developed  that  each  maxilla  ap- 
pears to  be  merely  the  first  segment  of  its 
leg-like  palpus.  These  appendages  are  often 

called  the  pedipalpi  (ped-i-pal'pi).  But  as  the 
name  Pedipalpi  is  applied  to  one  of  the  or- 
ders of  the  Arachnida,  we  will  call  these  ap- 
pendages the  palpi. 

The  legs  of  Arachnida  consist  typically  of 
seven  parts  (Fig.  7),  which  are  named,  begin- 
ning with  the  one  next  to  the  body,  as  fol- 
lows :  i,  coxa  (cox'a) ;  2,  trochanter  (tro-chan'- 
ter);  3, femur  (fe'mur);  ^patella  (pa-tel'la); 
5,  tibia  (tib'i-a) ;  6,  metatarsus  (met-a-tar'sus) ; 
and  7,  tarsus  (tar'sus).  The  tarsus  may  be  composed  of 
several  segments,  and  is  usually  furnished  with  claws. 

Two  forms  of  breathing  organs  are  found  in  this  class  : 
one,  tracheae,  resembling  the  tracheae  of  insects,  described 
in  the  chapter  on  the  anatomy  of  insects  ;  and  the  other, 
tracheal  lungs  or  lung  sacs,  which  consist  of  many  leaf-like 
plates  enclosed  in  a  sac.  Both  forms  open  by  paired  spira- 
cles, which  are  usually  situated  on  the  lower  side  of  some  of 
the  abdominal  segments. 


FIG. 


14  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Very  great  differences  exist  in  the  several  orders  of  the 
Arachnida  in  respect  to  the  division  of  the  body  into  seg- 
ments.  In  arranging  the  orders  in  a  series,  we  place  first 
those  in  which  the  segments  of  the  body  are  most  distinctly 
indicated,  while  those  which  seem  to  depart  more  widely 
from  the  segmented  type  characteristic  of  the  Arthropoda 
are  placed  later. 

The  class  Arachnida  includes  seven  orders  ;  these  are 
designated  as  follows : 

The  Scorpions,  Order  SCORPIONIDA  (p.  15). 

The  Jointed  Spiders,  Order  SOLPUGIDA  (p.  16). 

The  Pseudoscorpions,  Order  PSEUDOSCORPIONES  (p.  17). 

The  Whip-scorpions,  Order  PEDIPALPI  (p.  17). 

The  Harvestmen,  Order  PHALANGIDEA  (p.  19). 

The  Spiders,  Order  ARANEIDA  (p.  20). 

The  Mites,  Order  ACARINA  (p.  42). 

TABLE  OF  THE  ORDERS  OF  THE  ARACHNIDA. 

A.  Abdomen  distinctly  segmented. 

B.  Abdomen  with  a  tail-like  prolongation. 

C.  Tail  stout  and  armed  with  a  sting  at  the  end  ;  first  pair  of  legs 
not  greatly  elongated  ;  a  pair  of  comb-like  appendages  on  the 
lower  side  of  the  second  abdominal  segment  in  the  adult. 

(Scorpions?)     p.  1 5 SCORPIONIDA. 

CC.  Tail  slender,  whip-lash-like,  without  sting;  first  pair  of  legs 
much  longer  than  the  others ;  without  comb-like  appendages 
on  abdomen.  {Whip-scorpions)  (Thelyphonidce.)  p.  17. 

PEDIPALPI. 

BB.  Abdomen  without  a  tail-like  prolongation. 
C.  Palpi  with  pincer-like  claws.     (Pseudoscorpions.)     p.  17. 

PSEUDOSCORPIONES. 
CC.  Palpi  without  pincer-like  claws. 

D.  Abdomen  joined  to  the  thorax  by  a  slender  stalk;  front 
legs  greatly  elongated  and  with  whip-lash-like  tarsi.  (  Whip- 
scorpions^  (Phrynidce)  p.  17 PEDIPALPI. 

DD.  Abdomen  broadly  joined  to  the  thorax. 
E.  Legs    usually  very    long    and  slender;  thorax   not    dis- 
tinctly divided  into  three  segments.    (Harvestmen)    p.  19. 

PHALANGIDEA. 

EE.  Legs  moderately  long ;  head  distinct  from  thorax  ;  thorax 
distinctly  divided  into  three  segments,    p.  16.    SOLPUGIDA. 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES. 


AA.  Abdomen  unsegmented. 
B.  Abdomen  joined  to  the  cephalothorax  by  a  short,  narrow  stalk. 

(Sptders.)    p.  20 ARANEIDA. 

BB.  Abdomen  fused  with  the  cephalothorax.     (Mites.)      p.  42. 

ACARINA. 

Order  SCORPIONIDA  (Scor-pi-on'i-da). 
The  Scorpions. 

With  the  scorpions  (Fig.  8),  the  body  is  divided  into  a 
compact,  unsegmented  cephalothorax,  and  along,  segmented 
abdomen.  The  abdomen  is  divided 
into  two  portions  :  a  broad  pre-abdo- 
men,  consisting  of  seven  segments  ; 
and  a  slenderer  tail-like  division,  the 
post-abdomen,  consisting  of  five  seg- 
ments. At  the  end  of  the  post-abdo- 
men there  is  a  large  poison-sting, 
which  appears  like  a  segment.  The 
mandibles  and  the  palpi  are  provided 
with  pincers.  As  the  palpi  are  very 
large,  with  stout  pincers,  they  resem- 
ble in  a  striking  manner  the  great  claws 
of  lobsters.  The  cephalothorax  bears 
from  three  to  six  pairs  of  eyes.  Scor- 
pions breathe  by  means  of  lung  sacs, 
of  which  there  are  four  pairs,  opening 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  third  to  the 
sixth  abdominal  segments. 

Full-grown  scorpions  possess  a  pair  of  comb-like  organs 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  second  abdominal  segment.  The 
function  of  these  organs  is  not  yet  known. 

The  sexes  of  scorpions  differ  in  that  the  male  has 
broader  pincers  and  a  longer  post-abdomen.  Scorpions  do 
not  lay  eggs,  the  young  being  developed  within  the  mother. 
After  the  birth  of  the  young,  the  mother  apparently  shows 
great  regard  for  them,  carrying  them  about  with  her  for 


FIG.  8. — A  Scorpion. 


i6 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


some  time,  attached  by  their  pincers  to  all  portions  of  her 
body. 

Scorpions  live  in  warm  countries.  They  are  common  in 
the  southern  portion  of  the  United  States,  but  are  not  found 
in  the  North.  They  are  nocturnal,  remaining  concealed  dur- 
ing the  day,  but  leaving  their  hiding-places  at  dusk.  When 
they  run  the  post-abdomen  is  bent  upwards  over  the  back. 
They  feed  upon  spiders  and  large  insects,  which  they  seize 
with  the  large  pincers  of  their  palpi,  and  sting  to  death  with 
their  caudal  poison  sting. 

The  sting  of  a  scorpion  rarely  if  ever  proves  fatal  to  man, 
although  the  larger  species,  which  occur  in  the  Tropics,  pro- 
duce serious  wounds. 

Nearly  twenty  species  are  known  from  North  America. 

Order  SOLPUGIDA    (Sol-pu'gi-da). 
The  Jointed  Spiders. 

The  members  of  this  order  differ  from  all  other  Arach- 
nida  in  having  the  head  separate  from  the  thorax,  and  in 
having  the  thorax  composed  of 
three  distinct  segments,  as  with 
insects.  The  mandibles  are  very 
large,  and  are  furnished  with 
strong  pincers.  The  palpi  are 
shaped  like  the  legs,  and  are  said 
to  be  used  in  locomotion.  The 
first  of  the  four  pairs  of  true  legs, 
like  the  palpi,  are  not  furnished 
with  claws,  and  are  used  as  palpi. 
There  are  only  two  eyes.  Respi- 
ration is  effected  by  means  of 
tracheae,  which  open  through  three 

FIG.  9. — A    Jointed-spider,  Datames 

diiatata.   (After  Putnam.)         pairs  of   spiracles,  situated  in  the 

first  thoracic  and  the  second  and  third  abdominal  segments. 

Only  a   few  species  of  Solpugida  occur  in  the  United 

States,  and  specimens  of  these  are   rarely   found.      So  far 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES.  I? 

as  is  known,  our  species  are  nocturnal,  remaining  con- 
cealed during  the  day.  They  prey  upon  small  insects,  and 
are  believed  to  be  harmless.  Figure  9  will  serve  to  show 
the  appearance  of  these  curious  animals.  The  popular 
name,  jointed-spiders,  is  suggested  by  the  segmented  con- 
dition of  the  abdomen. 

Order  PSEUDOSCORPIONES  (Pseu-do-scor-pi'o-nes.) 

The  Pseudoscorpions. 

The  pseudoscorpions  (Fig.  10)  are  small  Arachnida, 
which  resemble  scorpions  in  the  form  of  their  body,  except 
that  the  hinder  part  of  the  abdomen  is  not  nar- 
row, as  is  the  post-abdomen  of  scorpions,  and 
they  have  no  caudal  poison-sting.  The  abdo- 
men is  broad,  flat,  and  composed  of  eleven 
segments,  or  in  some  cases  of  only  ten. 

The  pseudoscorpions  possess  only  one    or 
two  pairs  of  eyes,  and  in  some,  eyes  are  want- 

,-r.,  ,         ,  ,  i  FIG.  10. — A  Pseu- 

ing.       They    breathe    by  means    of    tracheae,      doscorpion. 
which  open  through  two  pairs  of  spiracles  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  second  and  third  abdominal  segments. 

These  little  scorpion-like  creatures  live  under  stones,  be- 
neath the  bark  of  trees,  in  moss,  and  in  the  dwellings  of  man, 
between  the  leaves  of  books,  etc.  They  run  rapidly,  side- 
wise  and  backwards ;  and  feed  on  mites  and  small  insects. 
They  are  often  found  attached  to  insects,  especially  to  flies; 
but  they  probably  do  not  feed  on  these  large  insects,  but 
merely  use  them  as  means  of  rapid  locomotion. 

The  pseudoscorpions  occur  in  the  Northern  States  as 
well  in  the  South. 

Order  PEDIPALPI  (Ped-i-parpi). 
The  Whip-scorpions. 

These  strange  creatures  are  found  only  in  the  extreme 
southern  part  of  our  country,  being  tropical  animals.  In 


18 


THE   STUDY  OF  I  If  SECTS. 


their  general  form  they  have  some  resemblance  to  scor- 
pions. They  can  be  easily  distinguished  by  the  form  of 
the  front  legs,  which  are  greatly  elongated,  and  have  the 
tarsi  broken  up  into  many  small  segments;  this  gives  these 
legs  a  more  or  less  whip-lash-like  appearance.  In  one 
family  the  abdomen  also  bears  a  whip-lash-like  appendage. 

The  mandibles  are  furnished  with  claws ;  the  palpi  are 
very  large  and  armed  with  strong  spines,  and  the  abdomen 
is  distinctly  separated  from  the  thorax.  The  order  includes 
two  families,  both  of  which  are  represented  in  the  United 
States. 

Family  THELYPHONID^E  (Thel-y-phon'i-dae). 
The  Tailed  Whip-scorpions. 

This    family  is   represented    in    the    United    States    by 

only  a  single  species,  the 
Giant  Whip  -  scorpion, 
TJielyphonus  giganteus 
(The-lyph'o-nus  gi-gan- 
te'us).  This  species 
measures  when  full 
grown  from  four  to  five 
inches  in  length.  Figure 
1 1  represents  one  less 
than  natural  size.  These 
whip-scorpions  are  great- 
ly feared  on  account  of 
their  supposed  venomous 
powers,  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  there  is  no 
foundation  for  this  fear. 
Although  it  has  been 
stated  often  that  their 
bites  are  poisonous,  we 
can  find  no  direct  evi- 


FlG.  \\.-Thelyphc 


fCiganteus. 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR   NEAR   RELATIVES. 


dence  that  it  is  so. 
with  their  palpi. 


They  destroy  their  prey  by  crushing  it 


Family  PHRYNID^:  (Phryn'i-dae). 
The  Tailless  Whip-scorpions. 

This  family  is  represented  in  our  fauna  by  the  genus 
Phrynus  (Phry'nus),  the  members  of  which  are  smaller  than 
the  Giant  Whip-scorpion.  In  this  family  the  front  legs 
are  even  more  whip-lash-like  than  in  the  preceding  family  ; 
the  whole  body  is  relatively  shorter  and  broader;  the 
abdomen  is  joined  to  the  thorax  by  a  slender  stalk,  and 
the  tail-like  appendage  is  lacking. 

Order   PHALANGIDEA  (Phal-an-gid'e-a). 
The  Harvestmen,  or  Daddy  Long  Legs. 

The  Harvestmen  are  very  common  in  most  parts  of 
the  United  States.  They  are  well  known  to  children  in 
this  country  under  the  name  Daddy  Long  Legs,  but  as  this 
name  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  Crane-flies,  Harvestmen 
is  preferable.  In  some  sections  of  the  country  the  Har- 
vestmen are  known  as  Grandfather  Graybeards. 

Most  Harvestmen  can  be  recognized  by  their  very  long 
and  slender  legs  (Fig.  12),  although  some  species  have 


FIG.  12. — The  Striped  Harvestman. 


comparatively  short  ones.    The  cephalothorax  is  indistinctly 
if  at  all  segmented.     The  abdomen  is  short,  broad,  consists 


2O  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

of  six  segments,  and  is  without  a  tail-like  appendage ;  it 
is  broadly  joined  to  the  cephalothorax. 

The  eyes  of  the  Harvestmen  a're  two  in  number,  and 
are  situated  on  a  prominent  tubercle  near  the  middle  of 
the  cephalothorax.  The  mandibles  are  pincer-like.  The 
maxillae  are  large,  and  so  opposed  as  to  act  as  jaws ;  their 
palpi  are  four-jointed,  and  are  small  compared  with  the  palpi 
of  the  preceding  orders;  they  resemble  in  form  and  func- 
tion the  palpi  of  insects.  The  members  of  this  order 
breathe  by  tracheae,  which  open  by  a  single  pair  of  spir- 
acles, on  the  lower  side  of  the  body  at  the  junction  of 
the  cephalothorax  and  abdomen. 

The  Harvestmen  feed  on  small  insects,  especially  Aphids, 
and  are  perfectly  harmless.  They  are  said  to  devour  their 
prey,  chewing  it  with  their  maxillae,  and  swallowing  it, 
instead  of  merely  sucking  out  the  blood,  as  do  most  other 
Arachnida. 

Although  the  Harvestmen  have  stilt-like  legs,  they  do 
not  raise  the  body  much  above  the  ground  when  they 
walk,  but  carry  it  quite  near  their  feet,  with  the  middle 
part  of  their  legs  high  in  the  air.  They  are  said  to  pounce 
upon  their  prey  as  does  a  cat  upon  a  mouse,  and  seize 
it  with  their  palpi  as  if  with  hands. 

It  is  a  common  practice  with  children  to  catch  these 
creatures  and  say  to  them,  "  Grandfather  Graybeard,  tell 
me  where  the  cows  are,  or  I'll  kill  you."  As  the  poor 
frightened  animal  points  its  legs  in  all  directions  in  its 
frantic  efforts  to  escape,  it  usually  earns  its  freedom  ;  but 
too  often  it  is  not  without  the  loss  of  one  or  more  legs. 

Order  ARANEIDA  (Ar-a-ne'i-da). 
The  Spiders. 

The  Spiders  differ  from  other  Arachnida  in  having  the 
abdomen  unsegmented  and  joined  to  the  cephalothorax 
by  a  short,  narrow  stalk.  The  cephalothorax  is  also  un- 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR   NEAR   RELATIVES. 


21 


segmented  ;  and  the  abdomen  bears  at  its  end  organs  for 
spinning  silk  (Fig.  13). 


FIG.  i^.—Pencetta  viridans.    (From  the  Author's  Report  on  Cotton  Insects.) 

The  mandibles  (Fig.  14,  met)  consist  of  two  segments, 
a  strong  basal  one  and  a  claw-shaped  terminal  one,  at 
the  tip  of  which  a  poison  gland  opens  (Fig. 
15).  It  is  by  means  of  these  organs  that 
spiders  kill  their  prey.  The  palpi  are  leg- 
like in  form,  but  differ  greatly  according 
to  sex.  In  the  female  the  last  segment  of 
the  palpus  resembles  a  foot  of  the  spider, 
and  is  usually  armed  with  a  well-developed 
curved  claw.  But  in  the  male  the  corre- 
sponding segment  is  more  or  less  enlarged, 
and  very  complicated  in  structure  (Fig.  16).  Fl0Gf- 
The  greater  number  of  spiders  have  four  Si 
pairs  of  eyes  (Fig.  17),  but  there  may  be  f 


FIG.  15.— Tip  of  claw  of    FIG.    16.— Maxilla   and      FIG.  17.— Head    of   spider, 
mandible  of  spider.  palpus  of  male  house-         showing  eyes  and  mandi- 

spider.  bles. 


22  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

only  one,  two,  or  three  pairs ;  and  certain  cave  spiders 
are  blind.  Spiders  breathe  by  means  of  lung-sacs,  of  which 
there  are  one  or  two  pairs ;  and  some  have  tracheae  also. 
The  lung-sacs  open  on  the  lower  side  of  the  abdomen 
near  its  base,  and  between  them  is  the  opening  of  the 
reproductive  organs.  The  tracheae  open  through  a  single 
spiracle  near  the  hind  end  of  the  body,  just  in  front  of  the 
spinning  organs. 

The  spinning  organs,  which  are  situated  near  the  end  of 
the  abdomen,  consist  of  two  or  three  pairs  of  spinnerets. 
These  appendages  (Fig.  18)  are  more 
or  less  finger-like  in  form,  and  some- 
times jointed.  Upon  the  end  of  each 
spinneret  there  are  many  small  tubes, 
the  spinning  tubes,  from  which  the  silk 
FK;.  ,8.-End  of  abdomen  of  ™  spun  (Fig-  19)-  Some  spiders  have 
as  many  as  one  hundred  and  fifty  or 
two  hundred  of  these  spinning-tubes 
on  each  spinneret.  The  silk  is  in  a 

fluid  state  while  it  is  within  the  body,  but  it  hardens  as 
soon  as  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  air. 

Ordinarily  the  tips  of  the  spinnerets  are  brought  close 
together,  so  that  all  the  minute  threads  that  emerge  from 
the  numerous  spinning  tubes  unite  to  form  a  single 
thread.  This,  however,  may  be  so  delicate  as  to  be 
invisible,  except  in  a  favorable  light.  Sometimes 
a  spider  will  spread  its  spinnerets  apart,  and  thus  FlG.  ,9. 


spin  a  broad  ribbon-like  band.     We  have  observed  ^  ?™¥P of 
a  spider  seize  a  large  grasshopper  which  was  en-     tue^'- 
tangled  in  its  web,  and,  rolling  it  over  two  or  three  enlar&ed- 
times,  completely  envelop  it  in  a  sheet  of  silk  spun  from 
its  spread-apart  spinnerets. 

In  the  construction  of  their  web  some  spiders  make 
use  of  two  kinds  of  silk.  One  of  these  is  dry  and  inelastic  ; 
the  other,  viscid  and  elastic.  This  fact  can  be  easily  seen 
by  examining  an  orb-web.  If  the  spiral  line  which  forms 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES.  23 

the  greater  part  of  the  web  be  touched,  it  will  adhere  to  the 
finger,  and  will  stretch,  when  the  finger  is  withdrawn,  to 
several  times  the  original  length.  But  if  one  of  the  radiat- 
ing lines  or  a  portion  of  the  outer  framework  be  touched,  it 
will  neither  adhere  to  the  finger  nor  be  stretched.  If  the 
spiral  line  be  examined  with  a  lens,  it  will  be  found  to  bear 
numerous  bead-like  masses  of  viscid  matter  (Fig.  20);  this 
explains  its  adhesiveness. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  two  kinds  of  silk  are  spun  from 
different  spinnerets,  and  that  the  yiscid  silk  comes  from  the 
front  pair.  When  this  silk  is  first  spun  the  viscid  matter 
forms  a  continuous  layer  of  liquid  on  the  outside  of  it.  But 
very  soon  this  layer  breaks  up  into  the  bead-like  masses — in 
a  way  similar  to  that  in  which  the  moisture  on  a  clothes-line 
in  a  foggy  day  collects  into  drops. 

Spiders  of  the  two  families  Dictynidcz  and  Uloboridce 
have  spinning  organs  differing  from  those  of  all  other 


FIG.  2o.-Viscid  silk 
from  an  orbweb. 


FIG.  2i.— Spinnerets  of 
a  Dictynid  spider. 
The  middle  pair  of 
spinnerets  are  con- 
cealed by  the  first 
pair,  c,  cribellum. 


FIG.  22.— Last  two  segments 
of  hind  leg  of  spider,  show- 
ing calamistrum. 


spiders.  They  have  in  front  of  the  usual  spinnerets  an 
additional  organ,  which  is  named  the  cribellum  (cri-bel'lum) 
(Fig.  21).  This  bears  spinning-tubes  like  the  other  spinner- 
ets, but  these  tubes  are  much  finer.  These  spiders  have 
also  on  the  metatarsus  of  the  hind  legs  one  or  two  rows  of 
curved  spines :  this  organ  is  the  calamistrum  (cal-a-mis'trum) 
(Fig.  22).  By  means  of  the  calamistrum  these  spiders  comb 
from  the  cribellum  a  band  of  loose  threads,  which  form 
a  part  of  their  webs. 


THE    STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


Spiders  make  use  of  silk  in  the  construction  of  their 
webs  or  snares,  in  the  building  of  tubes  or  tents  within 
which  they  live,  in  the  formation  of  egg-sacs,  and  in  loco- 
motion. 

Fig.  23  represents  the  large  egg-sac  of  one  of  the  orb- 
weavers.  This  is  made  in  the  autumn,  and  contains  at  that 
season  a  large  number  of  eggs — five  hun- 
dred or  more.  These  eggs  hatch  early  in 
the  winter ;  but  no  spiders  emerge  from 
the  egg-sac  until  the  following  spring.  If 
egg-sacs  of  this  kind  be  opened  at  differ- 
ent times  during  the  winter,  as  was  done 
by  Dr.  Wilder,  the  spiders  will  be  found 
to  increase  in  size  but  diminish  in  num- 
ber as  the  season  advances.  In  fact,  a 
strange  tragedy  goes  on  within  these 
egg-sacs:  the  stronger  spiders  calmly 
devour  their  weaker  brothers,  and  in 
the  spring  those  which  survive  emerge 
sufficiently  nourished  to  fight  their  bat- 
tles in  the  outside  world. 

The   egg-sacs  of  the  different    species    of  spiders  vary 


FIG.  23.— Egg-sac  of 
A  rgiope  riparia. 
(From  Wilder.) 


FIG.  24.— Egg-sac  of  Nepliila,  plumipes.     (From  Wilder.) 

greatly  in  form.     In  some,  as  in  that  figured  above,  the  outer 
covering  is  very  dense,  while  in  others  the  outer  part  con- 


JWSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES.  2$ 

sists  of  loose  flossy  silk  (Fig.  24).     One  of  the  most  common 
kinds  is  very  flat,  silvery  in  color,  and  is 
firmly  attached  to  stones  lying  upon  the 
ground  (Fig.  25). 

Every  one  knows  that  a  spider  wishing 
to  descend  to  some  place  beneath  it  simply 
fastens  a  line  to  the   object   which   it  is 
upon  and  then  drops  boldly  off,  regulat-  FlG    25._Eg?.sac  of  a 
ing   the  rate  of    its    descent  by  spinning 
the  line  rapidly  or  slowly;  when  the  spider  wishes  to  return, 
it  has  only  to  climb  up  the  same  line. 

Frequently  spiders  pass  from  point  to  point  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction  by  means  of  silken  bridges.  These  are 
formed  in  this  way  :  The  spider  spins  out  a  thread,  which  is 
carried  off  by  a  current  in  the  air.  After  a  time  the  thread 
strikes  some  object  and  adheres  to  it ;  then  the  spider  pulls 
the  line  tight,  and  fastens  it  where  it  is  standing.  It  then 
has  a  bridge,  along  which  it  can  easily  run. 

But  more  remarkable  than  either  of  these  uses  of  silk  for 
locomotion  is  the  fact  that  many  spiders  are  able  to  travel 
long  distances,  hundreds  of  miles,  through  the  air  by  means 
of  these  silken  threads — 

"sailing  mid  the  golden  air 
In  skiffs  of  yielding  gossamere." — {Hogg.) 

The  Aeronautic  Spiders,  or  Flying  Spiders,  as  they  are 
more  commonly  called,  are  frequently  very  abundant,  espe- 
cially in  warm  antumn  days.  At  such  times  innumerable 
threads  can  be  seen  streaming  from  fences,  from  bushes,  and 
the  tips  of  stalks  of  grass,  or  floating  through  the  air.  The 
flying  spider  climbs  to  some  elevated  point,  which  may  be 
merely  the  tip  of  a  stalk  of  grass,  and  then,  standing  on  the 
tips  of  its  feet,  lifts  its  body  as  high  as  it  can,  and  spins  out 
a  thread  of  silk.  This  thread  is  carried  up  and  away  by  a 
current  of  air.  When  the  thread  is  long  enough  the  force  of 
the  air  current  on  it  is  sufficient  to  buoy  the  spider  up.  It 


26  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

then  lets  go  its  hold  with  its  feet  and  sails  away.  That  these 
spiders  travel  long  distances  in  this  manner  has  been  shown 
by  the  fact  that  they  have  been  seen  floating  through  the 
air  at  sea  far  from  land. 

Representatives  of  nearly  thirty  families  of  spiders  have 
been  found  in  the  United  States.  But  some  of  these  fami- 
lies include  only  rare  species,  and  others  are  represented  by 
so  few  species  that  we  cannot  discuss  them  here.  The 
greater  number  of  our  spiders  belong  to  the  eleven  families 
described  below.  The  following  table  will  aid  the  student 
in  separating  these  families. 


TABLE   FOR   SEPARATING  THE   PRINCIPAL  FAMILIES   OF 
SPIDERS. 

A.  Claw  of  the  mandibles  moving  vertically;  four  lung-slits  present. 

{  Tarantulas?)     p.  27 THERAPHOSIM:. 

AA.  Claw  of  the  mandibles  moving  horizontally;  only  two  lung-slits 
present,  but  with  a  single  spiracle  or  a  pair  of  spiracles  also. 
B.   Eyes  equal  or  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  usually  arranged  in  two 
rows. 

C.  Feet    furnished  with   two   claws    (Fig.    28).     Spiders  which 
do  not  spin  webs  for  catching  prey. 
D.  Second  pair  of  legs  not  so  long  as  the  fourth  pair. 

E.  Maxillae  with  a  concavity  or  furrow  (Fig.  29).     Spiders 

which  live  on  the  ground.,   p.  29 DRASSID.* 

EE.  Maxillae  convex  (Fig.  32).     Spiders  which  live  chiefly  in 

silken  tubes  on  bushes,    p.  30 CLUBIONID/E. 

DD.  Second  pair  of  legs  as  long  as  or  longer  than  the  fourth 

pair.     ( The  crab-spiders.}    p. 40 THOMISIDJE. 

CC.  Feet  furnished  with  three  claws  (Fig.  38).     Spiders  which 
spin  webs  for  catching  prey. 

D.  The  caudal  pair  of  spinnerets  very  long,  and  two-jointed. 
Spiders  which  make  irregular  webs  with  a  tube  or  hiding- 
place  at  one  side,  from  which  they  run  on  the  upper  surface 

of  the  web,  to  catch  their  prey.     p.  30  AGALENID/E. 

DD.  All  of  the  spinnerets  short. 

E.  With  cribellum  and  calamistrum.     Spiders  making  webs 
in  which  there  are  curled  threads,  or  double  threads. 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES.  2? 

F.  The  side  eyes  not  as  far  apart  as  the  middle  eyes;  a 
considerable  space  between  the  eyes  and  the  front  edge 
of  the  head.  Spiders  making  irregular  webs.  p.  32. 

DICTYNID^;. 

FF.  The  side  eyes  as  far  or  farther  apart  than  the  middle 
eyes;  eyes  very  close  to  the  front  edge  of  the  head. 
Spiders  making  regular  webs.  (Uloborus)  p.  38. 

ULOBORID;E. 

EE.    With  neither  cribellum  nor  calamistrum.     Spiders  mak- 
ing webs  in  which  there  are  no  curled  threads. 
F.  Eyes  not  near  the  front  edge  of  the  head,  the  space  be- 
tween the  two  being  greater  than  that  occupied  by  the 
eyes  (Fig.  37).     Spiders  that  spin  irregular  webs,  in  or 
near  which  they  live,  hanging  back  downwards,    p.  34. 

THERIDIID/E. 

FF.  Eyes  near  the  front  edge  of  the  head,  the  space  be- 
tween the  two  being  less  than  that  occupied  by  the  eyes 
(Fig.  42).  Spiders  that  make  regular  webs,  consisting 
chiefly  of  lines  radiating  from  the  centre,  and  a  spiral  or 

looped  sticky  line.     p.  35  . . .   EPEIRID.-E. 

BB.  The  eyes  unequal  in  size  and  arranged  in  three  or  four  rows. 
C.  With  cribellum  and  calamistrum.     Spiders  which  make  webs. 

(Hyptiotes.)    p.  38 ULOBORID^E. 

CC.  With  neither  cribellum  nor  calamistrum.     Spiders  which  do 
not  spin  webs  for  catching  prey. 
D.  The  largest  eyes  not  in  the  front  row.     (Running  spiders.) 

p.  40 LYCOSID^E. 

DD.  The  largest  eyes  in  the  front  row.     (Jumping  spiders) 
p.  42 ATTID^E. 


Family  THERAPHOSID^:  (Ther-a-phos'i-dae). 
The  Tarantulas  and  the  Trap-door  Spiders. 

Those  who  live  in  the  warmer  parts  of  our  country  know 
well  the  large  spiders  commonly  called  Tarantulas.  These 
are  the  giants  among  spiders,  some  of  them  being  the  largest 
known  ;  but  some  species  of  this  family  are  not  very  large. 
They  are  dark-colored,  hairy  spielers,  and  can  be  distinguished 
from  the  other  families  mentioned  here  by  the  fact  that  the 


28 


THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


claw  of  the  mandibles  works  up  and  down  instead  of  side- 
wise. 

The  members  of  this  family  do  not  construct  true  webs, 
but  they  dig  long  tubes  in  the  earth,  which  they  line  with 
silk,  or  line  their  hiding-places  in  clefts  in  trees  or  elsewhere 
with  a  layer  of  silk.  They  live  only  in  warm  countries. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  the  Tarantulas  is  Eurypelma_ 
hcntzii  (Eu-ryp'el-ma  hentz'i-i).  This  species  occurs  in  the 
South  and  in  the  Middle  West,  and  is  the  largest  of  our 
spiders  (Fig.  26).  Several  closely  allied  species  are  found  in 
California. 


FIG.  26.— A  Tarantula,  Eurypelnta  hentzii. 

But  the  members  of  this  family  that  have  attracted  most 
admiration  on  account  of  their  habits  are  the  Trap-door 
Spiders.  These  dig  a  tube  in  the  ground,  as  do  many  other 
members  of  this  family ;  but  this  tube  is  lined  with  a  denser 


FIG.  27. — Entrance  to  nest  of  a  trap-door  spider. 

layer  of  silk,  and  is  provided  with  a  hinged   lid,  which  fits 
the  opening  of  the  tube  with  wonderful  accuracy  (Fig.  27). 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES. 


29 


The  spider  hides  in  this  nest  when  not  seeking  its  prey. 
Some  species  take  the  precaution  to  build  a  branch  to  their 
nest,  and  to  provide  this  branch  with  a  door.  As  this  door 
forms  a  part  of  one  side  of  the  main  tube,  it  is  not  likely  to 
be  observed  by  any  creature  which  may  find  its  way  past  the 
first  door  of  the  nest. 

Several  species  of  Trap-door  Spiders  occur  in  the  South- 
ern and  Southwestern  States. 


Family  DRASSID^:  (Dras'si-dae). 
The  Drassids,  or  Tube  Weavers  in  part. 

There  are  certain  dark-colored  spiders  that  spin  no  web, 
but  wander  about  at  night  in  search  of  prey,  and  hide  under 
leaves  and  stones  during  the  day-time.  Many  of  them  make 
silken  tubes,  in  which  they  hide  in  winter  or  while  moulting 
or  laying  eggs.  Hence  they  have  been  termed  Tube 
Weavers,  a  name  which  is  also  applied  to  certain  other 
spiders.  We  will  therefore  call  the  members  of  this  family 
the  Drassids  (Dras'sids). 

In  this  family  the  body  is  long,  and  is  usually  flattened 
above.  It  is  carried  near  the  ground  in  walking.  The  legs 
are  rather  short  and  stout ;  the  second  pair  are  not  longer 
than  the  fourth,  and  the  feet 
are  furnished  with  only  two 
claws  (Fig.  28).  The  eyes  are 
in  two  nearly  straight  rows,  and 
the  maxillae  are 
concave  or  fur- 
nished with  a 
furrow  (Fig.  29). 

One     of     the 

most         common    FIG  28 —Foot  of 
species      in      the        aDnissid- 
East    is   Drassus   saccatus  (Dras'sus    sac-ca'tus)    (Fig.    30). 
It  lives  under  stones,  in  a  large  bag  of  silk,  in  which  the 


FIG.  29.— Maxilla 
of  a  Drassid. 


FIG.  30.— Drassus 
saccatus. 


3O  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

female  stays  with  her  egg-sac.     In  early  summer  a  male  and 
female  live  together  in  the  nest. 

Family  CLUBIONID.E  (Clu-bi-on'i-dae). 
The  Clubionids,  or  Tube  Weavers  in  part. 

There  may  be  found  during  summer,  in  flat  tubular 
nests  on  plants,  usually  in  rolled  leaves,  spiders  that  spin 
no  webs  to  entrap  their  prey. 
These  spiders  very  closely  re- 
semble the  Drassids  in  structure, 
but  are  usually  lighter  in  color, 
with  the  legs  a  little  longer  and 
more  slender,  and  the  abdomen 
more  nearly  cylindrical  (Fig.  31). 


F.C.  3i.-cv.w-    FIG.  32.-Maxiiia  of  They  are  also  distinguished  by 
the  form  of  the  maxillae,  which 

are  convex  (Fig.  32).  These  spiders  belong  to  the  family 
Clubionidas.  As  we  have  no  appropriate  common  name 
for  these  spiders,  they  may  be  called  the  Clubionids  (Clu-bi- 
on'ids). 

During  the  winter  the  Clubionids  hide  under  bark  or 
stones,  and  make  tubular  nests  in  these  places. 

Family  AGALENID^E  (Ag-a-len'i-dae). 
The  Funnel-tveb  Weavers. 

Even  the  most  careml  observers  seldom  realize  what  an 
immense  number  of  spider-webs  are  spun  upon  the  grass  in 
the  fields.  But  occasionally  these  webs  are  made  visible 
in  the  early  morning  by  the  dew  which  has  condensed  upon 
them.  At  such  times  we  may  see  the  grass  covered  by  an 
almost  continuous  carpet  of  silk. 

The  greater  number  of  the  webs  seen  at  such  times  are 
of  the  form  which  we  term  funnel-webs.  They  consist  of  a 
•concave  sheet  of  silk,  with  a  funnel-shaped  tube  at  one  side, 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR   RELATIVES. 


and  numerous  lines  extending  in  all  directions  to  the  sup- 
porting spears  of  grass  (Fig.   33).     The  tube   serves   as    a 


FIG.  33.— Web  of  Grass  Spider,  Agalen 

hiding-place  for  the  owner  of  the  web ;  from  this  retreat  the 
spider  runs  out  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  web  to  seize  any 
insect  that  alights  upon  it.  The  tubes  open  below,  near  the 
roots  of  the  grass  ;  so  that  the  spider  can  escape  from  it  if 
a  too  formidable  insect  comes  upon  the  web. 

The  funnel-web  weavers  (family  Agalenidce)  are  long- 
legged,  brown  spiders,  in  which  the  head  part  of  the  cephalo- 
thorax  is  higher  than  the  thoracic  part,  and  distinctly 
separated  from  it  by  grooves  or 
marks  at  the  sides.  The  eyes 
are  usually  in  two  rows,  but 
in  Agalena  the  middle  eyes  of 
both  rows  are  much  higher  than 
the  others.  The  feet  have  three  claws.  The  posterior  pair 


FIG.  34. — Agalena.  ntevia. 


32  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

of  spinnerets  are  two-jointed,  and  usually  longer  than  the 
others. 

The  common  grass  spider,  which  abounds  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States,  is  Agalena  ncevia  (Ag-a-le'na  nas'vi-a 
(Fig.  34> 

Family  DlCTYNHLE  (Dic-tyn'i-dae). 

The  Curled-tJiread  Weavers  witJi  Irregular  Webs. 

The  Dictynids  (Dic-tyn'ids). 

Certain  spiders  are  remarkable  for  using  two  kinds  of 
silk  in  the  formation  of  their  webs.  Thus,  as  explained 
later,  the  Orb  Weavers  build  the  framework  of  their  orbs  of 
dry  and  inelastic  threads,  and  attach  to  this  framework  a 
thread  which  is  sticky  and  elastic  ;  while  most  spiders  which 
make  irregular  webs  use  only  one  kind  of  silk.  There  are, 
however,  certain  species  of  irregular  web-weavers  which  use 
two  kinds  of  silk.  One  of  these  is  a  plain  thread  like  that 
spun  by  other  spiders,  and  the  other  is  a  peculiar  curled 
thread  or  a  delicate  band  of  tissue  in  which  there  are  curled 
threads. 

The  curled-thread  weavers  represent  two  families,  one 
of  which  makes  irregular  webs;  the  other,  those  which  are 
of  definite  form.  The  first  of  these  is  the  Dictynidce. 

The  curled -thread  or  tissue-like  band  is  made  in  the 
same  way  by  both  families.  It  is  composed  of  silk  spun 
from  a  special  spinning-organ,  situated  in  front  of  the 
ordinary  spinnerets,  and  named  the  cribellum  (cri-bel'lum) ; 
and  is  combed  into  its  peculiar  form  by  means  of  a  comb  of 
stiff  hairs,  the  calamistrum  (cal-a-mis'trum),  which  is  borne 
by  the  metatarsus  of  the  hind  legs  (see  page  23).  In  mak- 
ing the  curled  thread  the  spider  turns  one  of  its  hind  legs 
under  the  abdomen  so  that  the  calamistrum  is  just  under 
the  cribellum,  and  the  foot  rests  on  the  other  hind  leg.  It 
then  moves  its  hind  legs  back  and  forth  rapidly,  so  that  the 
calamistrum  combs  out  from  the  spinning-tubes,  and  at  the 
same  time  tangles,  a  band  of  fine  threads. 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES, 


33 


This  band  of  tangled  or  curled  threads  is  easily  seen  in 
the  webs  of  these  spiders,  being  wider  than 
the  ordinary  threads  and  white  in  color.  In 
old  webs  it  becomes  conspicuous  by  the  large 
amount  of  dust  which  it  collects.  Figure  35 
shows  the  appearance  of  this  band  when 
magnified,  and  the  way  in  which  it  is  attached 
to  the  plain  threads. 

Our   more    common    Dictynids   make   webs  of   various 
shapes,  on  fences,  under  stones,  in  holes  in  rotten  logs,  and 


FIG.  35.— Curled 
thread  of  a 
Dictynid,  en- 
larged. 


FIG.  36.— Web  of  a  Dictynid,  on  a  dead  branch  of  Ceanothus,  somewhat  enlarged. 

on  plants.     These  webs  are  especially  common  among  the 
flowers  of  Golden-rod  and  other  plants  having  clusters  of 


34  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

small    flowers   (Fig.    36),    and    exhibit   a   slight   degree   of 
regularity. 

Family  THERIDIID^:  (Ther-i-di'i-dae). 
The  Cobweb  Weavers. 

Many  are  the  kinds  of  webs  spun  by  different  spiders. 
Some  of  them,  as  the  orb-webs  and  the  funnel-webs,  delight 
us  with  their  wonderful  regularity  of  form ;  while  others 
appear  to  be  a  mere  shapeless  maze  of  threads.  Such  are 
the  structures  whose  presence  in  the  corners  of  our  rooms 
torment  thrifty  housewives,  and  which  are  disrespectfully 
termed  cobwebs. 

The  cobweb  weavers  (Family  TJieridiidce)  are  small 
spiders  with  unusually  slim  legs.  The  space  between  the 
eyes  and  the  front  edge  of  the  head  is  greater  than  the 


FIG.  37.— Face  of  FIG.  38.— Foot  of  spider  FIG.  y^.—Mimetus 

house  spider.  Wlth  three  claws.  interfector. 

region  occupied  by  the  eyes  (Fig.  37);  the  eyes  are  in  two 
rows;  and  the  feet  are  furnished  with  three  claws  (Fig.  38), 
This  family  includes  many  species,  being  in  fact  the  largest 
of  all  of  the  families  of  spiders.  Figure  39  represents  a 
widely  distributed  species. 

Although  the  house  spiders  are  the  most  familiar  mem- 
bers of  this  family,  the  greater  number  of  species  spin  their 
webs  in  the  fields  on  bushes.  These  webs  usually  consist  of 
a  flat  or  curved  sheet,  under  which  the  spider  hangs  back 
downward.  This  sheet  is  supported  by  threads  running  in 
all  directions  to  the  neighboring  objects.  Frequently  there 
is  a  large  number  of  these  supporting  threads  above  the  web, 
which  serve  the  additional  purpose  of  impeding  the  flight  of 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES.  35 

insects,  and  causing  them   to  fall  into  the  web,  where  they 
are  caught. 

Some  of  these  spiders  do  not  remain  in  their  webs,  but 
have  a  nest  in  a  neighboring  crack  or  corner,  from  which 
they  rush  to  seize  their  prey.  And  sometimes  there  is  a 
funnel-shaped  tube  leading  to  this  nest.  But-these  spiders 
differ  from  the  true  funnel-web  weavers  in  running  back  clown- 
wards  on  the  lower  side  of  their  web. 

Family  EPEIRID^:  (E-pei'ri-dae). 
TJie  Orb   Weavers. 

Few  if  any  of  the  structures  built  by  lower  animals  are 
more  wonderful  than  the  nets  of  orb-weaving  spiders,  but 
these  beautiful  objects  are  so  common  that  they  are  often 
considered  hardly  worthy  of  notice.  If  they  occurred  only 
in  some  remote  corner  of  the  earth,  every  one  would  read  of 
them  with  interest. 

The  nets  of  the  different  species  of  orb  weavers  differ  in 
the  details  of  their  structure,  but  the  general  plan  is  quite 
similar.  There  is  first  a  framework  of  supporting  lines.  The 
outer  part  of  this  framework  is  irregular,  depending  upon  the 
position  of  the  objects  to  which  the  net  is  attached;  but  the 
more  central  part  is  very  regular,  and  consists  of  a  number 
of  lines  radiating  from  the  center  of  the  net  (Fig.  41).  All 
of  these  supporting  lines  are  dry  and  inelastic.  But  there 
is  spun  upon  the  radiating  lines  in  a  very  regular  manner  a 
thread  which  is  sticky  and  elastic  (Fig.  20,  p.  23).  Usually 
this  sticky  thread  is  fastened  to  the  radiating  lines  so  as  to 
form  a  spiral,  but  a  few  species  make  nets  in  which  this 
thread  is  looped  back  and  forth. 

Many  of  the  orb  weavers  strengthen  their  nets  by  spin- 
ning a  zigzag  ribbon  across  the  center.  This  ribbon  is  made 
by  spreading  the  spinnerets  apart  so  that  the  minute  threads 
from  the  spinning  tubes  do  not  unite  to  make  a  single  thread, 
as  is  usually  the  case. 

Some  of  the  orb  weavers  live  in  their  nets  hanging  head 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


downwards,  usually  near  the  center  of  the  net  ;  others  have 
a  retreat  near  one  edge  of  the  net,  in  which  they  hang  back 


FIG.  41. — Partially  completed  web  of  Epeira. 

downwards.  While  resting  in  these  retreats  they  keep  hold 
of  some  of  the  lines  leading  from  the  net,  so  that  they  can 
instantly  detect  any  jar  caused  by  an  entrapped  insect. 

When  an  insect  in  its  flight  touches  one  of  the  turns  of 
the  sticky  line,  the  line  sticks  to  it  ;  but  it  stretches  so  as  to 
allow  the  insect  to  become  entangled  in  other  turns  of  the 
line.  If  it  were  not  for  this  elasticity  of  the  sticky  line,  most 
insects  could  readily  tear  themselves  away  before  the  spider 
had  time  to  reach  them. 

In  making  its  web  an  orb  weaver  first  spins  a  number  of 
lines  extending  irregularly  in  various  directions  about  the 
place  where  its  orb  is  to  be.  This  is  the  outer  supporting 
framework.  Often  the  first  line  spun  is  a  bridge  between 
two  quite  distant  points.  This  is  done  as  described  on  p. 
Having  a  bridge  across  the  place  where  the  web  is  to  be,  it 
is  an  easy  matter  for  the  spider  to  stretch  its  other  lines 
where  it  wishes  them.  In  doing  this  it  fastens  a  thread  to 
one  point,  and  then  walks  along  to  some  other  point,  spin- 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR   NEAR  RELATIVES.  37 

ningthe  thread  as  it  goes,  and  holding  it  clear  of  the  object 
on  which  it  is  walking  by  means  of  one  of  its  hind  legs. 
When  the  second  point  is  reached  the  thread  is  pulled  tight 
and  fastened  in  place. 

After  making  the  outer  framework  the  radiating  lines 
are  formed.  A  line  is  stretched  across  the  space  so  as  to  pass 
through  the  point  which  is  to  be  the  center  of  the  orb.  In 
doing  this  the  spider  may  start  on  one  side,  and  be  forced  to 
walk  in  a  very  roundabout  way  on  the  outer  framework  to 
the  opposite  side.  It  carefully  holds  the  new  line  up  behind 
it  as  it  goes  along,  so  that  it  shall  not  become  entangled  with 
the  lines  on  which  it  walks ;  one  or  both  hind  feet  serve  as 
hands  in  these  spinning  operations.  The  spider  then  goes 
to  the  point  where  the  centre  of  the  orb  is  to  be,  and  fast- 
ening another  line  there,  it  walk  back  to  the  outer  frame- 
work, and  attaches  this  line  an  inch  or  two  from  the  first. 
In  this  way  all  of  the  radiating  lines  are  drawn.  The  next 
step  is  to  stay  these  radii  by  a  spiral  line  which  is  begun  at 
the  center,  and  attached  to  each  radius  as  it  crosses  it.  The 
turns  of  this  spiral  are  as  far  apart  as  the  spider  can  con- 
veniently reach,  except  at  the  center  of  the  web.  All  of  the 
threads  spun  up  to  this  stage  in  the  construction  of  the  web 
are  dry  and  inelastic.  The  spider  now  proceeds  to  stretch 
upon  this  framework  a  sticky  and  elastic  line,  which  is  the 
most  important  part  of  the  web,  the  other  lines  being  merely 
a  framework  to  support  it.  In  spinning  the  sticky  line  the 
spider  begins  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  orb,  and  passing 
around  it  fastens  this  line  to  each  radius  as  it  goes.  Thus  a 
second  spiral  is  made.  The  turns  of  this  spiral  are  placed 
quite  close  together,  and  the  first  spiral,  which  is  merely  a 
temporary  support,  is  destroyed  as  the  second  spiral  pro- 
gresses. Figure  41  represents  a  web  in  which  the  second 
spiral  is  made  over  the  outer  half  of  the  radii.  In  this  fig- 
ure, aa  represents  the  temporary  stay-line ;  bb,  the  sticky 
spiral ;  and  cc,  the  fragments  of  the  first  spiral  hanging  from 
the  radii. 


THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


G.  43. — Foot  of  Epeira. 


The  orb  weavers  (Family 
Epeiridce)  are  usually  plump 
spiders,  the  abdomen  being 
large,  and  often  nearly  spher- 
ical. The  space  between  the 
eyes  and  front  edge  of  the 
head  is  less  than  the  region 
Epeira-  occupied  by  the  eyes  (Fig.  42). 
The  eyes  are  arranged  in  two  rows.  The  front  legs  are 
longer  than  the  others.  The  feet  have  three  claws  (Fig.  43), 
and  the  spinnerets  are  all  short.  In  some  species  of  this 
family  the  male  is  much  smaller  than  the  female. 

Family  ULOBORID/E  (U-lo-bor'i-dae). 

The  Curled-thread  Weavers  with  Regular  Webs. 

The  Uloborids  (U-lo-bo'rids). 

We  have  already  described  the  thread-curling  habits  of 
the  Dictynids  (p.  32),  and  the  curious  organs  called  cribel- 
lum  and  calamistrum  (Fig.  44),  by  which  these  curled  threads 
are  made  (p.  23).  Similar  organs  and 
a  similar  habit  are  possessed  by  the  spi- 
ders of  the  family  Uloboridce.  These 
spiders,  however,  make  webs  which  are 
regular  in  form.  There  are  only  two 
genera  belonging  to  this  family  in  the  United  States  ;  but 
as  the  webs  made  by  these  are  very  different,  we  will  de- 
scribe both. 

The  Triangle  Spider,  Hyptiotes  cavatus  (Hyp-ti'o-tes  ca- 
va'tus). — This  spider  is  common  all  over  New  England  and 
the  Middle  States,  and  has  been  found  as  far  to  the  south- 
west as  Texas.  Its  web  is  most  often  found  stretched  be- 
tween the  twigs  of  a  dead  branch  of  pine  or  spruce.  At 
first  sight  this  web  appears  like  a  fragment  of  an  orb  web 
(Fig.  45);  but  a  little  study  will  show  that  it  is  complete. 
The  accompanying  figure,  by  Dr.  Wilder,  who  first  described 


FIG.  44.— Calamistrum  of 
Hyptiotes. 


INSEC7^S  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES. 


39 


the  habits  of  this  spider  (see  Popular  Science  Monthly,  1875), 
illustrates  the  form  of  the  web.  It  consists  of  four  plain 
lines  corresponding  to  the  radiating  lines  of  an  orb  web,  and 
a  series  of  double  cross  lines,  which  are  spun  by  the  cribel- 
lum  and  calamistrum.  From  the  point  where  the  radiating 
lines  meet  a  strong  line  extends  to  one  of  the  supporting 
twigs.  Near  this  twig  the  spider  rests,  pulling  the  web  tight 


FIG.  45.— Web  of  Hyptiotes  cavatus.    (From  Wilder.) 

so  that  there  is  some  loose  line  between  its  legs,  as  shown  in 
the  enlarged  figure.  When  an  insect  becomes  entangled  in 
one  of  the  cross  lines,  the  spider  suddenly  lets  go  the  loose 
line  so  that  the  whole  web  springs  forward,  and  the  insect  is 
entangled  in  other  cross  threads.  The  spider  then  draws 
the  web  tight  and  snaps  it  again.  This  may  be  repeated 
several  times  before  the  spider  goes  out  upon  the  web  after 
its  prey. 

Uloborus  (U-lob'o-rus). — The  spiders  of  this  genus  make 
round  webs  which  resemble  at  first  sight  those  of  the  Orb 
Weavers  ;  but  they  differ  from  the  ordinary  orb  webs  in  that 


40  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

the  spiral  thread  is  made  of  curled  or  hackled  silk. 
webs  are  nearly  horizontal,  and  are  usually  made  between 
stones  or  in  low  bushes.  The  spiders  of  this  genus  are  not 
common,  but  they  are  widely  distributed.  They  have  not, 
however,  been  reported  as  yet  from  the  Pacific  coast. 

Family  THOMISID^E  (Tho-mis'i-dae). 

The  Crab  Spiders. 

There  are  certain  spiders  which  are  called  crab  spiders, 
on  account  of  the  short  and  broad  form  of  the  body,  and 
the  curious  fact  that  they  can  walk  more  readily  sidewise  or 
backward  than  forward. 

These  spiders  spin  no  webs,  but  lie  in  wait  for  their  prey. 
They  live  chiefly  on  plants  and  fences,  and  in  the  winter 
hide  in  cracks  and  under  stones  and  bark.  Most  of  the  spe- 
cies are  marked  with  gray  and  brown,  like  the  bark  upon 
which  they  live.  Some  species  conceal  themselves  in  flow- 
ers, where  they  lie  in  wait  for  their  prey.  These  are  brightly 
colored,  like  the  flowers  they  inhabit ;  so  that  insects  visiting 
flowers  may  alight  within  reach  of  a  spider  before  seeing  it. 
In  this  -family  the  legs  are  turned  outward  and  forward 
more  than  downward  ;  so  that  the  body  is  carried  close  to 
the  ground.  The  second  pair  of  legs  are  as 
long  as  or  longer  than  the  fourth  pair.  The 
eyes  are  small,  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  ar- 
ranged in  two  rows. 

FlG.    46. —  Misu-  _  rill  i  r        i   • 

mena  vatia.  One    of   the   best-known    members    of    this 

family  is  the  female  of  Misumenavatia  (Mi-su'me-na  va'ti-a). 
This  is  milk-white,  with  sometimes  a  light  crimson  mark  on 
each  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  is  found  within  flowers 
(Fig.  46). 

Family  LYCOSID^:  (Ly-cos'i-dae). 

The  Running  Spiders. 

Every  collector  of  insects  who  has  searched  for  speci- 
mens under  stones  and  logs  is  familiar  with  the  large,  dark- 
colored,  hairy  spiders  often  found  in  these  places.  These 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES.  4! 

spiders  frequently  attract  especial  attention  by  dragging 
after  them  a  large  gray  ball  (Fig.  47) ;  this  is  the  egg-sac, 
which  the  female  carries  about  with  her  attached  to  her 
spinnerets.  These  spiders  run  swiftly ;  and  as  they  depend 


FIG.  47. — Lycosa  and  egg-sac. 

on  the  use  of  their  legs  for  the  capture  of  their  prey,  they  are 
well  termed  Running  Spiders. 

These  spiders  resemble  in  general  appearance  and  in 
habits  the  Tarantulas  of  the  South  and  the  West.  But  none 
of  our  species  attain  the  great  size  of  some  of  the  Tarantulas, 
and  in  the  Running  Spiders  the  claw  of  the  mandibles 
moves  horizontally  instead  of  vertically. 

In  this  family  the  body  is  hairy  and  usually  much  longer 
than  broad.  The  eyes  differ  markedly  in  size,  and  are 
arranged  in  three  or  four  rows.  The  larger  eyes  are  not  in 
the  front  row.  The  legs  are  rather  long  and  quite  stout. 

Like  the  Tarantulas,  some  of  the  Running  Spiders  build 
tubular  nests  in  the  ground, 
which  they  line  with  silk.  Some- 
times the  entrance  to  these  nests 
is  concealed  by  small  sticks  and 
leaves,  and  sometimes  the  spi- 
der builds  a  regular  turret  over 
the  entrance  of  its  tube  (Fig.  48). 
These  nests  are  used  merely  as 
retreats,  the  spiders  wandering 
forth  in  search  of  their  prey. 

The  larger  members  of  our 
common  species  belong  to  the  FIG  48._Entrance  to  nest  of  Turret 
genus  Aratfrt  (Ly-co'sa).  These  sPider« ^«— «-**«.  (After Marx.) 
drag  after  them  their  egg-sacs  as  described  above  ;  and 


42  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

when  the  young  hatch  they  climb  on  their  mother's  back, 
and  are  carried  about  for  a  time.  The  females  of  the  genus 
Dolomedes  (Dol-o-me'des),  which  also  belongs  to  this  family, 
carry  their  egg-sac  in  their  mandibles  until  the  young  are 
ready  to  hatch.  At  this  time  the  mother  fastens  the  egg- 
sac  in  a  bush,  and  spins  a  web  of  irregular  threads  about  it, 
among  which  the  young  spiders  remain  for  a  time. 

Family  ATTlDyE  (At'ti-dae). 
The  Jumping  Spiders. 

The  Jumping  Spiders  are  of  medium  size,  with  a  short  body 
and  short  stout  legs  (Fig.  49).     They  are  common  on  plants, 

tlogs,  fences,  and  the  sides  of  buildings.  They 
are  very  apt  to  attract  attention  by  their  pecul- 
iar appearance ;  their  short  stout  legs,  bright 
colors,  conspicuous  eyes,  and  quick,  jumping 
movements  being  very  different  from  those  of 
fc.  ordinary  spiders. 

The  eyes  are  arranged  in  three  or  four  rows; 

FLG«w/«r(F?om  *ke  front  middle  pair  are  the  largest,  and  are 

Re  orfonCk*8-  verv  conspicuous.     These  self-possessed  spiders 

ton  insects.)     are  able  to  stare  an  ordinary  observer  out   of 

countenance.     They  move  sidewise  or  backward  with  great 

ease,  and  can  jump  a  long  distance.     They  make  no  webs 

except  nests  in  which  they  hide  in  winter  or  when  moulting 

or  laying  eggs. 

In  certain  members  of  this  family  the  body  is  longer 
than  in  the  typical  forms,  and  ant-like  in  appearance. 

Order  ACARINA  (Ac-a-ri'na). 
The  Mites. 

In  this  order  the  abdomen  is  unsegmented  and  fused 
with  the  thorax,  giving  the  entire  body  a  more  or  less  sac- 
like  appearance.  In  many  the  body  is  marked  by  numerous 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES.  43 

transverse,  fine  lines,  which  are  so  impressed  as  to  appear 
like  the  divisions  between  minute  segments  (Fig.  52).  The 
majority  of  mites  are  very  small ;  but  some,  as  certain  Ticks, 
are  of  considerable  size. 

With  the  exception  of  a  single  family  the  members  of 
which  bring  forth  living  young,  all  mites  are  produced  from 
eggs.  As  a  rule,  the  newly-hatched  mites  have  only  three 
pairs  of  legs;  but  a  fourth  pair  are  added  during  growth. 
In  PhytoptiiSy  which  infests  plants,  there  are  only  two  pairs 
of  legs. 

The  mode  of  life  of  the  different  members  of  this  order 
varies  greatly :  some  are  parasitic  upon  animals ;  others 
infest  living  plants  ;  and  many  feed  upon  dead  animal  or 
vegetable  matter,  thus  acting  as  scavengers. 

Among  the  mites  that  are  parasitic  upon  animals  are  the 
various  Ticks,  which  are  very  common  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  our  country.  Figure  50  rep- 
resents  the  Cattle-tick  of  the  Southern  States. 
It  should  be  remembered  in  this  connection 
that  the  so-called  Sheep-tick  is  a  true  insect,  FIG.  5o.  — The 

,      .  .  ,  j        j^..  Cattle-tick,    fe- 

belonging  to  the  order  Diptera.  male. 

The  Itch-mite  is  a  well-known  parasite,  infesting  man 
and  causing  the  disease  known  as 
the  itch.  The  sensation  character- 
istic of  this  disease  is  due  to  the 
burrowing  of  the  mites  in  the  skin  ; 
and  the  efficiency  of  sulphur  oint- 

FIG.  5i!-An  itch-mite7  a^  from  ment    in    checking    this  disease   is 
beiow ;  b,  from  above.  due  to  the  fact  that  by  the  use  of 

it  the  mites  are  killed.  Figure  51  represents  an  itch-mite 
greatly  enlarged. 

Parasitic  mites  are  frequently  found  attached  to  insects  ; 
a  common  species  occurs  beneath  the  wings  of  locusts. 

The  best  known  of  the  mites  that  infest  plants  is  the  one 
commonly  called  the  Red  Spider.  This  lives  upon  house- 
plants  ;  and  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country,  where  there 


44  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

is  a  dry  season,  it  infests  fruit-trees  in  the  open  air.  As  it 
thrives  only  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  it  can  be  subdued  upon 
house-plants  by  a  liberal  use  of  water.  When  it  occurs 
upon  plants  in  the  open  air  it  can  be  combated  with  any  of 
the  washes  found  useful  in  destroying  scale  insects. 

Some  of  the  mites  that  infest  plants  produce  galls. 
These  galls  are  of  various  forms,  but  differ  from  those  pro- 
duced by  gall-flies  (Family  Cynipidce  of  the  Order  Hymen- 
opt  era)  in  having  open  mouths,  from  which  the  young  mites 
escape. 

A  common  disease  of  the  pear,  known  as  the  pear-leaf 
blister,  is  produced  by  a  four-legged  mite,  Pkytoptus  pyri 
(Phy-top'tus  py'ri)  (Fig.  52).  The  blisters  characteristic  of 


FIG.  ^.—Phytoptus  pyri,  greatly  enlarged. 

the  disease  are  swellings  of  the  leaf,  within  which  there  is  a 
cavity  affording  a  residence  for  the  mites.     Figure  53  repre- 

g 


FIG.  53.— Diagram  of  gall  of  Phytoptus  pyri  : 
f,  gall ;  «,  »,  normal  structure  of  leaf  ;  a,  open- 
ing of  gall  ;  e,  eggs.  (After  Soraur). 

sents  a  section  of  a  leaf  through  one  of  these  galls.  Here 
the  leaf  is  seen  to  be  greatly  thickened  at  the  diseased  part. 
On  the  lower  side  there  is  an  opening  through  which  the 
mite  that  started  the  gall  entered,  and  from  which  young 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES.  45 

mites  developed  in  the  gall  can  escape,  in  order  to  start  new 
galls.  In  addition  to  the  swelling  of  both  surfaces  of  the 
leaf  its  Internal  structure  is  seen  to  be  modified.  In  some 
parts  there  is  a  great  multiplication  of  the  cells,  and  in 
others  a  large  part  of  the  cells  have  been  destroyed.  Two 
eggs  of  mites  are  represented  in  this  gall.  As  the  season 
advances,  and  the  galls  become  dry  and  brownish  or  black, 
the  thickening  of  the  leaf  becomes  less  marked.  In  fact,  in 
some  cases  there  is  a  shrinkage  of  the  parts  affected.  Fig- 


FIG.  54.— Section  of  leaf  showing  structure  of  gall   in  autumn  :  g,  &a'l  I    ">  ni 
uninjured  part  of  leaf  ;  a,  opening  of  gall. 

ure  54  represents   a  section  through  a   leaf    collected  and 
studied  in  October. 

Among  the  scavenger  mites  there  are  some  that  infest 
food  products.  Thus  mites  are  sometimes  found  in  cheese, 
in  sugar,  and  in  preserved  meats. 

Class  MVRIAPODA  (Myr-i  ap'o-da). 
The  Centipedes  and  the  Millipedes. 

The  members  of  this  class  are  air-breathing  Arthropods,  in 
which  the  head  is  distinct  from  the  thorax,  and  the  thorax 
and  abdomen  form  a  continuous  region,  with  from  six  to  two 
Jiundred  segments,  each  bearing  a  pair  of  legs.  The  head 
bears  a  single  pair  of  antenna. 

The  thousand-legged  worms,  as  they  are  commonly 
called,  are  well-known  and  generally  feared  creatures.  But 
few  students  find  them  attractive  subjects  of  study  ;  never- 
theless it  is  well  to  know  something  about  them,  for  some  of 
them  are  dangerous  animals,  and  some  are  harmless.  A  few 
species  are  injurious  to  agriculture,  while  others  are  to  be 


46  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

classed  among  our  friends.  And  all  of  them  are  of  interest 
to  the  naturalist  as  representatives  of  a  distinct  type  of 
Arthropods. 

If  we  omit  certain  small  and  rather  uncommon  forms, 
the  Myriapods  may  be  classed  in  two  orders  ;  one  consisting 
of  the  Centipedes,  the  other  of  the  Millipedes. 


Order  CHILOPODA  (Chi-lop'o-da). 
The  Centipedes. 

The  centipedes  can  be  recognized  at  a  gjance  by  the  fact 
that  each  segment  of  the  body  bears  a  single  pair  of  legs 

(Fig.  55).  The  body  is 
usually  flattened,  and  the 
antennae  are  long  and  many- 
jointed. 

Many    species     of    centi- 
FIG.  55-— A  Centipede.  pedes    are  venomous.      The 

poison  glands  open  through  the  claws  of  the  first  pair  of  legs, 
which  are  bent  forward  so  as  to  act  with  the  mouth  parts. 
These  creatures  abound  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States; 
those  which  are  found  in  the  North  are  comparatively 
small,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  inflict  serious  injury  to  man  ;  but 
the  larger  species,  which  occur  in  the  warmer  regions,  are 
said  to  be  extremely  venomous. 

The  centipedes  are  predaceous,  feeding  on  insects  ;  they 
usually  live  under  stones,  logs,  and  bark.  There  is  one  spe- 
cies, Cermatia  forceps  (Cer-ma'ti-a),  which  has  very  long  legs, 
and  only  fifteen  pairs  of  them,  which  is  often  found  running 
on  the  walls  of  houses,  especially  in  the  Southern  States. 
We  have  never  heard  of  this  centipede  biting  a  human  be- 
ing, and  as  it  feeds  upon  insects,  especially  cockroaches,  it: 
may  be  regarded  as  a  welcome  visitor  in  houses. 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES.  47 

Order  CHILOGNATHA  (Chi-log'na-tha). 
The  Millipedes. 

The  millipedes  differ  from  the  centipedes  in  having  two 
pairs  of  legs  on  each  of  the  body  segments  except  the 
first  three.  The  body  in  most  of  them  is  not  flattened  as 
with  the  centipedes,  and  the  antennae  are  comparatively 
short  and  few  jointed  (Fig.  56). 


FIG.  56.— A  Millipede. 

The  millipedes,  as  a  rule,  live  in  damp  places  and  feed  on 
decaying  vegetable  matter.  They  are  harmless,  except  that 
occasionally  they  feed  upon  growing  plants. 


CHAPTER  III. 
Class  HEXAPODA  (Hex-ap'o-da). 

The  Insects. 

The  members  of  this  class  are  air-breathing  Arthropoau, 
with  distinct  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen.  They  have  one  pair 
of  antenna,  three  pairs  of  legs,  and  usually  one  or  tivo  pairs 
of  wings  in  the  adult  state. 

There  are  about  us  on  every  side  myriads  of  tiny  crea- 
tures that  are  commonly  passed  unnoticed,  and  even  when 
observed,  they  are  usually  thought  to  be  unworthy  of  serious 
consideration.  But  all  life  is  linked  together  in  such  a  way 
that  no  part  of  the  chain  is  unimportant.  Frequently  upon 
the  action  of  some  of  these  minute  beings  depends  the  mate- 
rial success  or  failure  of  a  great  commonwealth.  The  intro- 
duction and  spread  of  a  single  species  of  insect  (the  Cot- 
tony-cushion Scale)  in  California  threatened  the  destruction 
of  the  extensive  orchards  of  that  State  ;  thousands  of  trees 
perished.  The  introduction  of  a  few  individuals  of  a  partic- 
ular kind  of  Lady-bug  (Vedalia  cardinalis),  which  feeds  upon 
this  pest  and  multiplies  rapidly,  soon  checked  the  evil,  and 
has  nearly  removed  the  pest  from  the  State. 

But  insects  are  of  interest  to  us  for  other  reasons  than 
the  influence  they  may  have  upon  our  material  welfare ;  the 
study  of  them  is  a  fruitful  field  for  intellectual  growth.  It  is 
not  a  small  matter  to  be  able  to  view  intelligently  the  facts 
presented  by  the  insect  world,  to  know  something  of  what 
is  going  on  around  us.  And  so  rich  is  this  field  that  no  one 
gains  more  than  a  mere  smattering  concerning  it. 


HEXAPODA.  49 

We  know  as  yet  comparatively  little  about  the  minute 
structure  of  insects ;  the  transformations  and  habits  of  the 
greater  number  of  species  have  not  been  studied;  and  the 
blood-relationship  of  the  various  groups  of  insects  is  very 
imperfectly  understood.  If,  therefore,  one  would  learn 
something  of  the  action  of  the  laws  that  govern  the  life  and 
development  of  organized  beings,  and  at  the  same  time  ex- 
perience the  pleasure  derived  from  original  investigation,  he 
cannot  find  a  better  field  than  is  offered  by  the  study  of  in- 
sects. 

But  it  is  not  necessary  that  one  should  have  the  tastes 
and  leisure  required  for  careful  scientific  investigation  in 
order  to  profit  by  this  study.  It  can  be  made  a  recreation, 
a  source  of  entertainment  when  we  are  tired,  a  pleasant  oc- 
cupation for  our  thoughts  when  we  walk.  Any  one  can  find 
out  something  new  regarding  insect  architecture — the  ways 
in  which  these  creatures  build  nests  for  themselves  or  fo; 
their  young.  It  is  easy  to  observe  remarkable  feats  of  en- 
gineering, examples  of  foresight,  wonderful  industry,  unre- 
mitting care  of  young,  tragedies,  and  even  war  and  slavery. 

The  abundance  of  insects  makes  it  easy  to  study  them. 
They  can  be  found  wherever  man  can  live,  and  at  all  seasons. 
This  abundance  is  even  greater  than  is  commonly  supposed. 
The  number  of  individuals  in  a  single  species  is  beyond  com- 
putation :  who  can  count  the  aphids  or  the  scale-bugs  in  a 
single  orchard,  or  the  bees  in  a  single  meadow? 

Not  only  are  insects  numerous  when  we  regard  individ- 
uals, but  the  number  of  species  is  far  greater  than  that  of 
all  other  animals  taken  together.  The  number  of  species  in 
a  single  family  is  greater  in  several  cases  than  the  number 
of  stars  visible  in  a  clear  night. 

The  word  insect  is  often  applied  incorrectly  to  any  mi- 
nute animal ;  and  even  among  naturalists  there  is  some  lack 
of  uniformity  in  its  use.  Some  writers  include  under  this 
term  the  Arachnida  and  Myriapoda,  as  well  as  the  Six-footed 
Insects.  But  the  great  majority  of  entomologists  restrict 


50  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

the  term  to  the  Hexapoda,  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  we 
use  it. 

The  name  Hexapoda  is  from  two  Greek  words:  Jiex,  six  ; 
and/w/r.y,  foot.  It  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  members  of 
this  order  differ  from  other  Arthropods  in  the  possession  of 
only  six  feet. 

Insects  breath  by  means  of  a  system  of  air-tubes  (tra- 
cheae) which  extends  through  the  body.  This  is  true  even 
in  the  case  of  those  that  live  in  water'and  are  supplied  with 
gill-like  organs  (the  tracheal  gills ;  see  p.  75).  The  head  is 
distinct  from  the  thorax,  and  bears  a  single  pair  of  antennae  ; 
in  these  respects  they  are  closely  allied  to  the  Myriapods. 
But  they  can  be  easily  distinguished  by  the  number  of  their 
feet,  and,  usually,  also  by  the  presence  of  wings. 

THE  METAMORPHOSES  OF  INSECTS. 

Nearly  all  insects  in  the  course  of  their  lives  undergo  re- 
markable changes  in  form.  Thus  the  butterfly,  which  de- 
lights us  with  its  airy  flight,  was  at  one  time  a  caterpillar; 
the  bee,  which  goes  so  busily  from  flower  to  flower,  lived  first 
the  life  of  a  clumsy,  footless  grub ;  and  the  graceful  fly  was 
developed  from  a  maggot. 

In  the  following  pages  considerable  attention  will  be 
given  to  descriptions  of  the  changes  through  which  various 
insects  pass.  It  is  our  wish  in  this  place  merely  to  define 
certain  terms  which  are  used  in  describing  these  changes. 

Development  without  Metamorphosis. — In  one  of  the  orders 
of  insects,  the  Thysanura,  the  young  insect  just  hatched 
from  the  egg  is  of  the  same  form  as  the  adult  insect.  These 
insects  merely  grow  larger,  without  any  more  marked  change 
in  form  than  takes  place  in  our  own  bodies  during  our  life. 
They  are  said,  therefore,  to  develop  without  metamorphosis. 

Incomplete  Metamorphosis. — There  are  many  insects  which 
undergo  a  striking  change  of  form  during  their  life,  although 
the  young  greatly  resembles  the  adult.  Thus  a  young  locust 
just  out  from  the  egg  can  be  easily  recognized  as  a  locust. 


HEXAPODA. 


It  is  of  course  much  smaller  than  the  adult,  and  is  not  fur- 
nished with  wings.  Still  the  form  of  the  body  is  essentially 
the  same  as  that  of  the  adult  (Fig.  57).  (The  hair-line 
above  the  figure  indicates  the  natural  size  of  the  insect.) 
After  a  time  rudimentary  wings  appear;  and  these  increase 


FIG.  5.7.— Nymph  of  Melanoflus, 
first  stage.     (After  Einerton.) 


FIG.  58.— Nymph  of  Melanoplus, 
second  stage.  (After  Emerton.) 


FIG.  59. — Nymph  of  Melanof>lus^  third  stage. 
(After  Emerton.) 


IG.  60. — Nymph  of  Melanoplus^  fourth 
stage.     (After  Einerton.) 


FIG.  61.— Nymph  of  Melanoplus,  fifth 
stage.     (After  Emerton.) 


FIG.  62.— Melanoplus,  adult. 


in  size  from  time  to  time  till  the  adult  state  is  reached  (Figs. 
57  to  62).  During  this  development  there  is  no  point  at 
which  the  insect  passes  into  a  quiescent  state  corresponding 
to  the  chrysalis  state  of  a  butterfly.  Those  insects  which, 
like  the  locust,  when  they  emerge  from  the  egg  resemble  in 
form  the  adult,  but  still  undergo  some  change,  are  said  to  un- 
dergo an  incomplete  metamorphosis.  In  other  words,  after 
leaving  the  egg  they  do  not  undergo  a  complete  change  of 
form. 

Complete  Metamorphosis. — Still  other  insects,  like  the  but- 


52  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

terflies,  beetles,  bees,  and  flies,  leave  the  egg  in  an  entirely 
different  form  from  that  which  they  assume  when  they  reach 
maturity.  A  butterfly  begins  its  active  life  as  a  caterpillar. 
It  feeds  and  grows,  and  when  full  grown  changes  to  a  chrys- 
salis.  In  this  stage  it  has  very  little  resemblance  to  a  cater- 
pillar. After  a  time  there  bursts  forth  from  the  chrysalis 
shell  the  butterfly,  which  looks  very  little  like  the  chrysalis, 
and  still  less  like  the  caterpillar  from  which  it  came.  In  a 
similar  way,  from  the  egg  laid  by  a  fly  upon  a  piece  of  meat 
there  hatches,  not  a  fly,  but  a  footless,  worm-like  maggot. 
This  when  fully  grown  changes  to  a  quiescent  object  corre- 
sponding to  the  chrysalis  of  a  butterfly.  Later  from  this  ob- 
ject there  escapes  a  winged  fly  like  that  which  laid  the  egg. 
Those  insects,  like  the  butterflies  and  flesh-flies,  which  when 
they  emerge  from  the  egg  bear  almost  no  resemblance  in 
form  to  the  adult  insect,  are  said  to  undergo  a  complete  met- 
amorphosis. In  other  words,  the  change  of  form  undergone 
by  the  insect  is  a  complete  one. 

How  Insects groiv — Molting. — The  skin  of  an  insect  is  hard- 
ened more  or  less  by  a  horny  substance  known  as  chitine 
(chi'tine).  This  hardening  usually  occurs  to  a  much  greater 
extent  in  adult  insects  than  it  does  in 
the  young.  But  in  all  the  skin  becomes 
so  firm  that  it  cannot  stretch  enough  to 
allow  for  the  growth  of  the  insect.  The 
result  is,  that  from  time  to  time  an  in- 
sect's skin  becomes  too  small  for  it,  and 
must  be  shed.  But  before  this  is  done 
a  new  skin  is  formed  beneath  the  old 
one;  then  the  old  skin  bursts  open,  and 
the  insect  crawls  forth,  clothed  in  a  soft 
skin,  which  stretches  to  accommodate 
the  increased  size  of  the  animal.  Very 
soon,  however,  this  new  skin  becomes 
hardened  with  chitine,  and  after  a  time 

FIG.  tea. — Exuviae  of 

nymph  of  Dragon-fly,     it  in  turn  must  be  shed.     This  shedding 
of  the  skin  is  termed  molting,  and  the  cast  skin  is  some- 


HEX  A  POD  A. 


53 


times  referred  to  as  the  exuvice  (ex-u'vi-se).  Insects  differ 
greatly  as  to  the  number  of  times  they  molt :  many  species 
molt  only  four  or  five  times,  while  others  are  known  to 
molt  more  than  twenty  times.  Figure  620.  represents  the 
cast  skin  of  a  Dragon-fly  clinging  to  a  reed. 

The  Egg. — This  is  the  first  stage  in  the  existence  of 
any  insect,  although  in  some 
few  instances  the  egg  remains 
in  the  body  of  the  mother  till 
it  hatches.  But  almost  always 
the  eggs  are  laid  by  the  mother 
insect  on  or  near  the  food  which 
gives  nourishment  to  the  young. 
Many  of  the  most  interesting 
habits  of  insects  are  connected 
with  the  care  of  the  eggs  by 
the  parent.  The  eggs  may  have 
smooth  oval  shells;  but  often 
the  shells  are  beautifully  ribbed  FIG.  63.— Egg  of  cotton-worm,  greatly 

enlarged.    (From  the  Author's  Report 

and  pitted  \rig.  03),  and  some-     on  cotton  insects.) 

times  they  are  ornamented  with  spines,  and  are  frequently 

exquisitely  colored. 

The  Larva. — This  is  the  second  stage  of  an  insect's  life, 
and  is  the  form  that  hatches  from  the  egg.  Familiar  exam- 
ples of  larvae  are  caterpillars,  maggots,  and  grubs  (Fig.  64). 


FIG.  64.— A  caterpillar,  the  larva  of  a  moth. 

In  fact,  nearly  all  the  creatures  commonly  known  as  worms 
are  larvae  of  insects.  Away  from  the  ocean  we  find  but  few 
worms,  except  earthworms,  leeches,  "  hair-snakes,"  and 
worm  parasites  in  the  intestines  of  men  and  animals. 
Nearly  all  the  rest,  except  millipedes  and  centipedes,  are 
larvse  of  insects,  and  finally  change  to  forms  with  wings. 


54  THE   STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 

The  larval  stage  is  devoted  to  growth;  the  sole  business 
of  a  larva  being  to  eat  and  grow.  All  molting,  because  of  in- 
creased size,  is  done  in  the  larval  stage,  later  molts  are 
simply  for  change  of  shape. 

The  Pupa. — This  is  the  third  stage  in  the  life  of  an  in- 
sect, and  is  ordinarily  a  period  of  inaction,  except  that  rapid 
and  wonderful  changes  go  on  within  the  body.  Very  few 
pupae,  like  those  of  mosquitoes,  are  active.  Usually  pupae 

have  no  power  of  moving 
around,  but  many  of  them  can 
squirm  when  disturbed.  When 
the  last  skin  of  the  larva  is 
thrown  off  the  pupa  is  re- 
vealed ;  it  is  an  oblong  object, 

FIG.  65.-A  pupa  of  a  large  moth.  ^        frequently        apparently 

headless  and  footless.  In  many  pupae  the  skin  is  a  shiny 
covering  like  porcelain.  If  a  pupa  be  examined  closely  the 
antennae  and  legs  and  wings  may  be  seen  ;  these  are  folded 
up  closely  and  soldered  to  the  breast  in  the  case  of  tne 
moths  and  butterflies  (Fig.  65),  but  free  in  case  of  the  bees, 
ants,  and  beetles. 

Tlie  Chrysalis. — This  term  is  often  applied  to  the  pupa  of 
a  butterfly.  The  word  is  derived  from  a  Greek  word  mean- 
ing gold,  and  came  into  use  because  of  the  golden  dots  and 
markings  on  many  of  the  butterfly  pupae. 

The  Cocoon. — Many  larvae,  especially  those  of  moths, 
when  full  grown,  spin  about  the  body  a  silken  case,  so  that 
when  they  change  to  helpless  pupae  they  may  be  protected 
from  enemies,  and  from  rain  and  snow ;  these  silken  cases 
are  called  cocoons.  They  are  frequently  made  within  a 
rolled  leaves  (Fig.  66),  or  beneath  grass  and  rubbish  on  the 
ground,  or  in  cells  below  the  ground.  Some  hairy  caterpil- 
lars make  cocoons  largely  of  their  own  hairs,  which  they 
fasten  together  with  a  film  of  silk. 

The  Nymph. — The  terms  larva  and  pupa  are  only  ap- 
plied to  the  early  stages  of  those  insects  that  have  a  com- 


HEX  A  POD  A.  55 

plete  metamorphosis ;  for  in  the  case  of  other  insects  there 
is  no  distinct  pupa  stage.  When  reference  is  made  to  the 
young  of  an  insect  that  undergoes  an  incomplete  metamor- 


FIG.  66. — A  large  cocoon  within  a  rolled  leaf. 

phosis  it  is  called  a  nymph.  This  term  is  applied  to  all 
stages  of  such  an  insect  from  the  time  they  hatch  from  the 
egg  until  they  shed  their  skin  for  the  last  time.  When  a 
nymph  first  hatches  it  has  no  signs  of  wings ;  but  after  it 
molts  several  times  two  projections  appear  on  each  side  of 
the  thorax.  These  projections  become  larger  and  larger, 
and  more  wing-like  in  form  with  each  successive  molt. 
Usually  the  change  in  the  size  of  these  organs,  between  the 
last  nymph  stage  and  the  adult  stage,  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  any  previous  molt.  With  the  nymphs  of  certain 
families,  dragon-flies,  crickets,  grasshoppers,  and  locusts, 
the  front  pair  of  developing  wings  extend  back  beneath  the 
hind  pair  instead  of  covering  them  ;  and  by  this  inverted 
position  of  the  wings  the  nymphs  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  adults,  even  in  those  cases  where  the  adults  have  only 
rudimentary  wings. 

The  Adult. — This  is  the  last  stage  or  the  mature  form 
of  the  insect.  Almost  all  adult  insects  except  Thysanura 
have  wings,  although  there  are  numerous  exceptions  to  the 
rule ;  for  there  are  many  cases  where  wings  have  been  lost 
through  disuse.  An  insect  never  grows  after  it  reaches  the 
adult  stage,  and  therefore  never  molts.  There  is  a  popular 
belief  that  a  small  fly  will  grow  into  a  large  fly,  but  this  is 
not  true,  for  after  any  insect  gets  its  perfect  wings  it  can 


56  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

grow  no  larger,  except  that  in  case  of  females  the  body 
may  be  distended  by  the  growth  of  eggs  within  it.  While 
many  adults  eat  more  or  less,  it  is  only  to  sustain  life,  and 
not  for  growth.  Indeed,  many  adult  insects  take  very  little 
food,  and  some  have  lost  their  mouth-parts  entirely,  through 
disuse.  The  adult  stage  usually  lasts  for  a  considerably 
shorter  time  than  the  larval  or  nymph  stages.  In  fact,  it 
seems  planned  in  the  economy  of  nature  that  the  grown-up 
insects  should  live  only  long  enough  to  lay  eggs,  and  thus 
secure  the  perpetuation  of  the  species. 

THE  EXTERNAL  ANATOMY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  subject  of  insect  anatomy  is  separated  into  two  divi- 
sions :  one,  treating  of  the  structure  of  the  body-wall  or 
skeleton ;  the  other,  of  the  internal  organs.  The  former  is 
termed  external  anatomy ;  the  latter,  internal  anatomy. 

In  our  own  bodies  we  find  a  central  framework  or  skele- 
ton, about  which  are  arranged  the  muscles,  blood-vessels, 
nerves,  and  other  organs.  But  insects  are  constructed  on 
an  entirely  different  plan :  with  them  the  supporting  skele- 
ton is  outside,  and  the  muscles,  nerves,  and  other  organs 
are  within  this  skeleton.  The  difference  can  be  well  seen 
if  the  figure  showing  the  internal  structure  of  the  leg  of  a 
May-beetle  (Fig.  67)  be  compared  with  one  of  our  own 
limbs,  either  arm  or  leg. 


FIG.  67.— Leg  of  May-beetle.     (After  Straus-Durckheim.) 


The  body  of  an  insect  is  built  on  the  same  plan  as  are 
its  legs.  The  outside  of  the  body  is  more  or  less  firm,  being 
hardened  by  chitine ;  and  this  firm  outer  wall  supports  the 
muscles  and  other  organs,  thus  serving  as  a  skeleton.  The 
skeleton  is  therefore,  in  general  outline,  a  hollow  cylinder. 


HEXAPODA.  57 

This  hardening  of  the  body-wall  is  not  continuous,  but 
takes  place  in  a  series  of  more  or  less  regular,  ring-like  bands, 
which  give  the  well-known  seg- 
mented appearance  characteristic  of 
insects,  and  the  animals  closely  FIG.  es.-A  Larva, 

allied  to  them.  Between  the  hardened  ring-like  segments 
the  body-wall  remains  soft  and  flexible.  In  this  way  provi- 
sion is  made  fcr  the  various  motions  of 
the  body.  The  ring-like  nature  of  the 
segments  of  the  body  is  best  seen  in 
larvae  (Fig.  68),  and  in  the  hinder  part  of 
an  adult  insect  (Fig.  69).  The  movements 
of  the  legs,  antennae,  and  certain  other 
appendages  are  provided  for  in  the  same 
way ;  each  one  is  a  cylinder  made  up  of 
several  segments,  and  between  these  seg- 
ments the  wall  of  the  cylinder  remains 
flexible. 

When  a  single  segment  of  the  body  is 
examined,  the  hardened  portion  is  not 
found  to  be  a  continuous  ring,  but  is  seen 
to  be  made  up  of  several  portions  more 
FIG.  69.— A  Mole  Cricket,  or  less  movable  upon  each  other.  Such 
a  hardened  portion  of  the  body-wall  is  termed  a  sclerite 
(scle'rite). 

The  sclerites  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  body-wall, 
the  soft  membranous  portions  separating  them  being  in 
most  cases  narrow.  Usually  these  narrow  portions  are 
mere  lines ;  they  are  then  called  sutures  (sut'urs). 

Frequently  the  sutures  become  entirely  effaced.  We 
are  therefore  often  unable  to  distinguish  certain  sclerites  in 
one  species  of  insect  which  we  know  to  exist  in  another. 
In  such  cases  the  effaced  sutures  are  said  to  be  obsolete. 

If  the  central  portion  or  thorax  of  an  adult  insect  be 
examined,  numerous  sclerites  and  sutures  can  be  observed 
(Fig.  70). 


$8  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  subject  of  external  anatomy  of  insects  consists  very 
largely  in  a  study  of  the  scierites  of  which  the  different  seg- 
ments of  the  body  and  of  its  appendages  are  composed. 
This  part  of  the  subject  is  quite  difficult,  and  will  not  be 
discussed  here.  It  is  treated  at  length  in  a  more  advanced 
text-book  by  the  senior  author.* 


FIG.  70. — Side-view  of  Locust  with  wings  FIG.  71. — Wasp,  with 


.      .  , 

ved  head,   thorax,    and 

abdomen  separated. 


remo 


The  segments  of  the  body  in  a  fully  developed  insect  are 
grouped  into  three  regions  :  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen 
(Fig.  71).  In  the  larval  state  this  grouping  of  the  segments 
is  not  well  shown. 

The  Head  and  its  Appendages. 

The  head  is  the  first  of  the  three  regions   of  the  body. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  formed  of  several  body-segments  grown 
together  ;  but  entomologists  differ  in  their  views  as  to  the 
number  of  segments  that  have  entered  into  its  composition. 
The  head  bears  the  compound  eyes,  the  simple  eyes,  the 
antennae,  and  the  mouth-parts. 

The  Compound  Ryes.  —  On  each  side  of 
the  head  of  an  adult  insect  is  an  organ, 
which  is  recognized  at  once  as  an  eye. 
But  when  one  of  these  eyes  is  examined 
with  a  microscope  it  is  found  to  present 

•IG.   72.  -  Part   of   com-  ......  -  ,  . 

pound  eye,  greatly  en-  an  appearance  very  different  from  that  of 
the   eye    of    higher   animals  ;    its    surface 
is    divided     into    a    large    number    of    six-sided  divisions 

*  An  Introduction  to  Entomology  by  John  Henry  Comstock       Published 
by  the  Comstock   Publishing  Co.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


a  EX  A  POD  A. 


(Fig.  72).  A  study  of  the  internal  structure  of  this 
organ  has  shown  that  each  of  these  hexagonal  divi- 
sions is  the  outer  end  of  a  distinct  eye  (Fig.  73).  Hence 
what  at .  first  appears  to  be  a  single  eye  is 
really  an  organ  composed  of  hundreds  of  eyes ; 
it  is  termed,  therefore,  a  compound  eye.  Each 
of  the  small  eyes  of  which  a  compound  eye  is 
composed  is  termed  an  ocellus  (o-cel'lus)  (plural 
ocelli).  The  number  of  ocelli  of  which  a  com- 
pound eye  is  composed  varies  greatly :  there 
may  be  not  more  than  fifty,  as  in  certain  ants, 
or  there  may  be  many  thousand,  as  in  a  but- 
terfly or  a  dragon-fly.  Compound  eyes  are  not 
found  in  larvae,  though  they  may  possess  a 
group  of  simple  eyes  on  each  side  of  the  head. 

The  Simple  Eyes. — In  addition  to  the  com- 
pound eyes,  many  adult  insects  possess  simple 
eyes.  These  are  situated  between  the  com- 
pound eyes.  They  vary  in  number  from  one 
to  four;  the  most  common  number  is  three  (see 
Fig.  71).  The  simple  eyes  are  usually  termed 
ocelli ;  sometimes,  stemmata  (stem'ma-ta). 

When  the  term  ocelli  is  used  in  descriptive 
works,  if  there  is  nothing  in  the  context  to  FlG 
indicate  the  contrary,  it  is  almost  invariably 
applied  to  the  simple  eyes,  and  not  to  the  ele- 
ments of  the  compound  eyes.  In  the  same 
way  the  term  eye  usually  refers  to  the  com- 
pound eyes,  unless  otherwise  indicated  by  the 
context. 

The  Antenna. — The  antennae  are  a  pair  of 
jointed  appendages  inserted  in  the  head  in 
front  of  the  eyes  or  between  them.  They 
vary  in  form.  In  some  insects  they  are  thread-like,  consisting 
of  a  series  of  similar  segments;  in  others  certain  segments 
are  greatly  modified  in  form. 


73.  —  Three 
ocelli,  with  reti- 
nulae,  from  the 
compound  eye 
of  a  May-beetle. 
(After  Grenach- 
er.)  The  pig- 
ment has  been 
dissolved  away 
fromt  woof  them. 
F,  corneal  facet; 
AT,  crystalline 
cone;  A  Pigment- 
sheath  ;  />,  chief 
pigment-cell ;  /", 
pigment-cells  of 
the  second  order; 
/?,  retinulae. 


6o 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  various  forms  of  antennae  are  designated  by  special 
terms.     The  more   common  of  these  forms  are  represented 
in  Figure  74.     These  are  as  follows : 

1.  Setaceous  (se-ta'ceous)  or  bris- 
tle-like, in  which   the  segments  are 
successively  smaller  and  smaller,  the 
whole  organ  tapering  to  a  point. 

2.  Filiform  (fiTi-form)  or  thread- 
like, in  which    each   segment    is   of 
nearly  uniform  thickness  throughout 
its    length;    and   the   antenna   as  a 
whole  tapers  gradually,  if  at  all,  to- 
wards the  tip. 

3.  Moniliform   (mo-nil'i-form)  or 
necklace-form,  in  which  the  segments 
are  more  or  less  globose,  suggesting 
a  string  of  beads. 

4.  Serrate  (ser'rate)   or   saw-like, 
in  which  the  segments  are  triangular, 

FIG.  74. — Various  forms  of  an- 
tennae. and  project  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 

5.  Pectinate  (pec'ti-nate)  or  comb-like,  in  which  the  seg- 
ments have  long  processes  on  one  side,  like  the  teeth  of  a 
comb,  or  on  both  sides,  like  a  feather. 

6.  Clavate  (cla'vate)  or  club-shaped,  in  which  the  seg- 
ments become  gradually  broader,  so  that  the  whole  organ 
assumes  the  form  of  a  club. 

7.  Capitate   (cap'i-tate)   or   with    a   head,   in  which   the 
terminal  segment  or  segments  form  a  large  knob. 

8.  Lamellate  (Jam'el-late),  in  which  the  segments  that 
compose  the   knob   are   extended   on   one  side  into  broad 
plates. 

TJie  Mouth-parts. — No  set  of  organs  in  the  body  of  an  in- 
sect vary  in  form  to  a  greater  degree  than  do  the  mouth-parts. 
Thus  with  some  the  mouth  is  formed  for  biting,  while  with 
others  it  is  formed  for  sucking.  Among  the  biting  insects 
some  are  predaceous,  and  have  jaws  fitted  for  seizing  and 


HEXAPODA.  6 1 

tearing  their  prey  ;  others  feed  upon  vegetable  matter,  and 
have  jaws  for  chewing  this  kind  of  food.  Among  the  suck- 
ing insects  the  butterfly  merely  sips  the  nectar  from  flowers, 
while  the  mosquito  needs  a  powerful  instrument  for  piercing 
its  victim.  In  this  place  the  typical  form  of  the  mouth- 
parts  as  illustrated  by  the  biting  insects  is  described.  The 
various  modifications  of  it  presented  by  the  sucking  insects 
are  described  later,  in  the  discussion  of  the  characters  of 
those  insects. 

In  the  biting  insects,  the  mouth-parts  consist  of  an  upper 
lip,  the  labrum (la'brum)  (Fig.  75,  8);  an  under  lip,  the  labium 
(la'bi-um)  (Fig.  75,  12);  and  two 
pairs  of  jaws  between  them.  These 
jaws  open  sidewise,  instead  of  in 
a  vertical  direction,  as  do  the 
jaws  of  the  higher  animals.  The 
upper  pair  of  jaws  are  called  the 
mandibles  (man'di-bles)  (Fig.  75, 
10);  the  lower  pair,  the  maxilla 
(max-iriae)  (Fig.  75,  u).  There 
may  be  also  within  the  mouth 
one  or  two  tongue-like  organs, 
the  ^/>////rtr/w^r(ep-i-phar'ynx)  and 
hypopharynx  (hy  -  po  -  phar'y nx)  Fic  75  _Mouth-parts  of  the  Red- 
*•*-  --  "x  The  epipharynx  is 

attached  to  the  upper  wall  of  the  cavity  of 
the  mouth,  and  the  hypopharynx  to  the 
lower.  The  position  of  the  hypopharynx  is 
quite  analogous,  therefore,  to  that  of  our 
tongue. 

The  mandibles   vary  much   in   form,  bi 
usually   each   consists   of    a   single   sclent 
The  maxillae  of  biting  insects,  on  the  other 
.  rf.-M-m.of  a  hand,  are  very  complicated  organs  each  cor 

Tiger  Beetle.          ^^     Qf     ^^      scleriteS.         Each     maXlll 

bears  an  appendage  consisting  of  several  segments; 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


appendages  are  termed  the  maxillary  palpi.  In  the  maxillae 
of  certain  biting  insects,  as  the  grasshoppers  and  the  ground 
beetles,  there  is  an  appendage  usually  consisting  of  two 
segments :  this  is  the  galea  (ga'le-a)  or  outer  lobe.  In  some 
of  these  insects,  as  the  ground-beetles  and  the  tiger- 
beetles,  the  galea  is  shaped  like  a  palpus,  and  thus  there 
appears  to  be  two  pairs  of  maxillary  palpi  (Fig.  76). 
The  labium  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  jointed  appendages  ; 
these  are  the  labial  palpi  (Fig.  75,  u,  d). 

The  Thorax  and  its  Appendages. 

The  thorax  is  the  second  or  intermediate  region  of  the 
body  ;  it  is  the  region  that  bears,  in  the  adult  insect,  the 
organs  of  locomotion,  the  legs,  and  the  wings  when  they  are 
present.  This  region  is  composed  of  three  of  the  body- 
segments  more  or  less  firmly  joined  together  ;  the  segments 
are  most  readily  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  each  bears  a 
pair  of  legs.  In  winged  insects,  the  wings  are  borne  by  the 
second  and  third  segments.  The  first  segment  of  the  thorax, 
the  one  next  to  the  head,  is  named  the  prothorax ;  the 
second  thoracic  segment  is  the  mesothorax ;  and  the  third, 
the  metathorax. 

The  Legs. — Each  leg  consists  of  the  following  parts, 
beginning  with  the  one  next  to  the  body  (see  Fig.  77) : 

coxa,  trochanter,  femur,  tibia, 
and  tarsus.  Each  of  these 
parts  consists  of  a  single  seg- 
ment except  that  in  certain 
Hymenoptera  the  trochanter 
consists  of  two  segments  (Fig. 
77,  /),  and  in  most  insects  the 
tarsus  consists  of  several  seg- 
ments. The  number  of  seg. 
ments  of  the  tarsus  varies  from 
one  to  six  ;  the  most  common  number  is  five.  Frequently 
the  first  segment  of  the  tarsus  is  much  longer  than  either  of 


a  b  c 

FIG.  77.— Legs  of  insects  :  a.  Wasp  ;  b. 
Ichneumon-fly;  c,  Bee  ;  (,  trochanter; 
HI.  metatarsus. 


HEXAPODA.  63 

the  other  segments,  and  it  may  also  differ  greatly  in  form 
from  them  ;  under  such  circumstances  it  is  sometimes  desig- 
nated the  metatarsus  (met-a-tar'sus)  (Fig.  77,  /«).  The  last 
segment  of  the  tarsus  usually  bears  one  or  two  claws. 

On  the  ventral  surface  of  the  segments  of  the  tarsus  in 
many  insects  are  cushions  of  short  hairs  or  of  membrane, 
capable  of  inflation,  or  concave  plates,  which  act  so  as  to 
produce  a  vacuum,  and  thus  enable  the  insect  to  walk  on  the 
lower  surface  of  objects.  These  cushions  or  plates  are  called 
pulvilli  (pul-vil'li).  In  many  insects  the  pulvillus  of  the  last 
segment  of  the  tarsus  is  a  circular  pad  projecting  between 
the  tarsal  claws.  In  most  descriptive  works  this  is  referred 
to  as  the  pulvillus,  even  though  the  other  pulvilli  are  well 
developed.  See  also  page  420. 

The  Wings. — The  two  pairs  of  wings  are  borne  by  the 
mesothorax  and  metathorax,  but  either  or  both  pairs  may 
be  wanting.  Thus  the  Flies,  or  Diptera,  have  only  the  first 
pair  of  wings  fitted  for  flight,  the  second  pair  being  repre- 
sented by  a  pair  of  knobbed  threads,  the  function  of  which 
is  unknown;  and  with  the  Earwigs  and  Beetles  the  first 
pair  of  wings  is  wanting,  although  the  mesothorax  bears  a 
pair  of  horny  wing  covers,  which  are  somewhat  wing-like  in 
form,  and  are  commonly  described  as  wings.* 

In  form  an  insect's  wing  is  a  large  membranous  append- 
age, which  is  thickened  along  certain  lines.  These  thickened 
lines  are  termed  the  veins  or  nerves  of  the  wing;  and  their 
arrangement  is  described  as  the  venation  or  munition  of  the 
wings.  The  thin  spaces  of  the  wings  which  are  bounded  by 
the  veins  are  called  cells.  When  a  cell  is  complete!) 
rounded  by  veins  it  is  said  to  be  closed;  but  when  it  extends 
to  the  margin  of  the  wing  it  is  said  to  be  open. 

The  wings  of  different  insects  vary  greatly  in  structure. 

*  The  wing  covers  or  elytra  of  earwigs  and  beetles  probably  correspond  to 
the  tegul*  of  Hymenoptera  and  to  the  patagia  of  Lepidopter 
are  a  pair  of  the  side  pieces  of  the  mesothorax,  the  paraptera,  grci 

larged. 


64  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

and  thus  afford  excellent  distinctions  for  the  purposes  of 
classification.  The  various  parts  of  the  wing  have,  there- 
fore, received  special  names.  There  is  considerable  lack  of 
uniformity  among  entomologists  as  to  the  names  applied  to 
these  parts ;  but  we  have  adopted  the  set  of  terms  defined 
below  as  representing  the  best  usage. 

An  insect's  wing  is  more  or  less  triangular  in  outline ;  it 
therefore  presents  three  margins:  the  costal  margin,  or  costa 
(Fig.  78,  a,  b)  ;  the  outer  margin  (Fig.  78,  b,  c)  ;  and  the  inner 
margin  (Fig.  78,  c,  d). 

The  angle  at  the  base  of  the  costal  margin  (Fig.  78,  a)  is 
the  humeral  angle  (hu'me-ral);  that  between  the  costal  mar- 
gin and  the  outer  margin  (Fig.  78,  b}  is  the  apex  of  the  wing ; 
and  the  angle  between  the  outer  margin  and  the  inner  mar- 
gin (Fig.  78,  c]  is  the  anal  angle  (a'nal). 

There  have  been  many  different  sets  of  names  applied  to 
the  veins  of  the  wings.  Not  only  have  the  students  of  each 
order  of  insects  had  a  peculiar  nomenclature,  but  in  many 
cases  different  students  of  the  same  order  of  insects  have 
used  different  sets  of  terms.  This  condition  of  affairs  was 
incident  to  the  beginning  of  the  science,  the  period  before 
the  correspondence  of  the  veins  in  the  different  orders  had 
been  worked  out.  But  now  the  time  has  come  when  it 
seems  practicable  to  apply  a  uniform  nomenclature  to  the 
wing  veins  of  all  orders ;  and  the  following  set  of  terms  is 
proposed  for  that  purpose. 

The  principal  veins  of  the  wing,  those  that  arise  at  or 
near  the  base  of  the  wing,  are  termed,  beginning  with  the 
one  lying  on  the  costal  margin,  the  costa  (cos'ta),  the  subcosta, 
the  radius  (ra'di-us),  the  media  (me'di-a),  the  cubitus  (cu'bi- 
tus),  and  the  anal  veins.  The  radius,  media,  and  cubitus 
are  usually  branched,  and  there  may  be  several  anal  veins. 

In  certain  orders  of  insects  two  other  veins  arising  near 
the  base  ot  the  wing  have  been  developed  :  one  lying  between 
the  media  and  the  radius,  the  premedia ;  and  one  lying  be- 
tween the  media  and  the  cubitus,  \.}\z  postmedia. 


HEXAPODA. 


The  veins  are  frequently  designated  by  numbers;  the 
following  table  will  indicate  the  correspondence  of  the  num- 
bers with  the  names:  • 
I.  Costa. 
II.  Subcosta. 

III.  Radius. 

IV.  Premedia. 
V.  Media. 

VI.   Postmedia. 
VII.  Cubitus. 
VIII.  1 
**•  I  Anal. 

A. 

et  aL  } 


FIG.  78.— Diagram  of  wing,  showing  margin*, 
angles,  and  veins. 


^.-Diagram  of  wing  of  mo 


th,  ,howin*  the  arrangement  of  the  rein.;  -in,  IV  and 
VI  are  wanting. 


66  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  principal  veins  are  indicated  by  Roman  numerals, 
and  when  these  veins  are  branched,  the  branches  are  indi- 
cated by  Arabic  indices  appended  to  the  Roman  numeral. 
Thus  the  branches  of  radius  are  designated  as  III,,  III,,  III,, 
etc.  (Fig.  79). 

Figure  78  represents  the  fore-wing  of  a  butterfly  (Danais], 
and  Figure  79  the  two  wings  of  a  moth  (Castnid).  In  all 
butterflies  and  moths  veins  IV  and  VI  are  wanting,  and  in 
all  butterflies  and  in  many  moths  the  basal  part  of  vein  V  is 
also  wanting.  The  arrows  in  Figure  78  indicate  the  po- 
sition of  the  remnants  of  this  part  of  vein  V.  In  the  hind 
wing  of  the  moth  figured,  vein  V,  has  become  joined  to  vein 
III,  so  that  it  appears  to  be  a  branch  of  it ;  and  in  the  but- 
terfly vein  V3  appears  to  be  a  branch  of  vein  VII,  although 
a  short  stump,  indicated  by  the  lower  arrow,  shows  its  former 
position,  in  ancient  butterflies,  before  the  loss  of  the  basal 
part  of  vein  V. 

The  Abdomen  and  its  Appendages, 

The  abdomen  is  the  third  or  caudal  region  of  the  body. 
Its  segments  are  more  simple,  distinct,  and  ring-like  than 
those  of  the  other  regions.  The  number  of  segments  of 
which  it  appears  to  be  composed  varies  greatly.  In  the 
Cuckoo-flies  (CJirysididce)  there  are  usually  only  three  or  four 
visible,  while  in  many  other  insects  nine  appear.  Except  in 
the  lowest  order  of  insects  (Thysanurd)  the  abdomen  of  the 
adult  bears  no  locomotive  appendages.  But  many  larvae 
have  fleshy  appendages  which  aid  in  locomotion :  these  are 
termed  prolegs.  In  the  adult  the  end  of  the  body  in  many 
families  is  furnished  with  jointed  filaments — the  cerci,  and 
caudal setce.  Frequently  also  the  body  is  furnished  in  the  male 
with  organs  for  clasping — the  claspers ;  and  in  the  female 
with  saws,  piercers,  or  borers — the  ovipositor.  In  the  female 
of  certain  insects  there  is  a  sting,  a  modified  ovipositor,  which 
is  used  as  an  organ  of  defence  ;  and  the  abdomen  of  plant- 
lice  and  certain  other  insects  bears  a  pair  of  tubes  or  tuber- 


HEXAPODA.  67 

cles,  through  which  honey  dew  is  excreted  :  these  are  com. 
monly  called  honey-tubes  ;  they  are  also  termed  cornicles, 
nectaries,  or  siphuncles. 


THE  INTERNAL  ANATOMY  OF  INSECTS. 

(For  advanced  students.} 

As  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  pages,  the  body-wall  serves 
as  a  skeleton,  being  hard,  and  giving  support  to  the  other  organs  of 
the  body.  This  skeleton  may  be  represented,  therefore,  as  a  hollow 
cylinder.  We  have  now  to  consider  the  arrangement  and  the  general 
form  of  the  organs  contained  in  this  cylinder.  For  the  details  of  the 
structure  of  th  .  internal  organs  the  student  is  referred  to  more  special 
works. 

The  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  80),  which  represents  a  vertical, 
longitudinal  section  of  the  body,  will  enable  the  student  to  gain  an  idea 
of  the  relative  position  of  some  of  the  more  important  organs.  The 
parts  shown  in  the  diagram  are  as  follows:  The  body-wall,  or  skeleton 


FIG.  80.— Diagram  showing  the  relation  of  the  internal  organs. 

(y) ;  this  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  overlapping  segments ;  that  part  of  it 
between  the  segments  is  thinner,  and  is  not  hardened  with  chitine. 
thus  remaining  flexible  and  allowing  for  the  movements  of  the  body. 
Just  within  the  body-wall,  and  attached  to  it,  are  represented  a  few  of 
the  muscles  (m) ;  it  will  be  seen  that  these  muscles  are  so  arranged 
that  the  contraction  of  those  on  the  lower  side  of  the  body  would 
bend  it  down,  while  the  contraction  of  those  on  the  opposite  side 
would  act  in  the  opposite  direction.    The  alimentary  canal  (a)  occu- 
pies the  centre  of  the  body,  and  extends  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
The  heart  (A)  is  a  tube  open  at  both  ends,  and  lying  between  the 
alimentary  canal  and  the  muscles  of  the  back.     The  central  part 
the  nervous  system  («)  is  a  series  of  small  masses  of  nervous  mat 
connected  by  two  longitudinal  cords:  one  of  these  masses, 
lies  in  the  head  above  the  alimentary  canal ;  the  others  are  situated. 


68 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 
PLATE  II. 


% 


A  CATERPILLAR  (Cossus  ligniperita). 

(After  Lyonet.) 

FiG.  i. — Caterpillar  opened  on  the  ventral  middle  line.  FIG.  2. — Caterpillar  opened  on 
the  dorsal  middle  line.  i.  principal  longitudinal  tracheae  ;  2,  central  nervous  sys- 
tem; 3,  aorta;  4,  longitudinal  dorsal  muscles;  5,  longitudinal  ventral  muscles; 
6.  wings  of  the  heart;  7,  tracheal  trunks  arising  near  spiracles;  8,  reproductive 
organs  ;  9,  vertical  muscles  :  10,  last  abdominal  ganglion. 


HEXAPODA.  fy 

one  in  each  segment,  between  the  alimentary  canal  and  the  layer  of 
muscles  of  the  ventral  side  of  the  body;  the  two  cords  connecting 
these  masses,  or  ganglia,  pass  one  on  each  side  of  the  cesophagus  to 
the  brain.  The  reproductive  organs  (r)  lie  in  the  cavity  of  the  abdo- 
men and  open  near  the  caudal  end  of  the  body.  The  respiratory 
organs  are  omitted  from  this  diagram  for  the  sake  of  simplicity. 

The  Muscular  System.—  We  find  in  insects  a  wonderfully  'large 
number  of  muscles.  Those  that  move  the  segments  of  the  body  form 
several  layers  just  within  the  body-wall.  The  two  figures  on  Plate  II 
represent  two  caterpillars  which  have  been  split  open  lengthwise,  one 
on  the  middle  line  of  the  back  and  one  on  'the  opposite  side  ;  in  each 
case  the  alimentary  canal  has  been  removed,  so  that  only  those  organs 
that  are  attached  quite  closely  to  the  body-wall  are  left.  From  a  study 
of  these  figures  some  idea  can  be  obtained  of  the  number  and  arrange- 
ment of  these  muscles.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that 
only  a  single  layer  of  muscles  is  represented  in  these  figures  _  the  layer 
which  would  be  seen  if  a  caterpillar  were  opened  in  the  way  indicated. 
When  these  muscles  are  cut  away  many  other  muscles  are  found  ex- 
tending obliquely  in  various  directions  between  these  muscles  and  the 
body-wall. 

The  muscles  of  insects  appear  very  differently  from  those  (the  lean 
meat)  of  higher  animals.  In  insects  the  muscles  are  either  colorless 
and  transparent,  or  yellowish  white  ;  and  they  are  soft,  almost  of  a 
gelatinous  consistence.  When  hardened  by  alcohol  or  otherwise,  and 
examined  with  a  microscope,  they  are  seen  to  be  crossed  by  numerous 
transverse  lines,  like  the  voluntary  muscles  of  Vertebrates. 

As  a  rule,  the  muscles  of  insects  are  composed  of  an  immense 
number  of  distinct  fibres,  which  are  not  enclosed  in  tendinous  sheaths 
as  with  Vertebrates.  Rut  the  muscles  that  move  the  appendages  of 
the  body  are  furnished  with  a  tendon  at  the  end  farthest  from  the 
body  (Fig.  81). 


FIG.  81.—  Leg  of  May-beetle.    (After  Straus-Durckheim.) 


Notwithstanding  the  soft  and  delicate  appearance  of  the  muscles 
of  insects,  they  are  really  very  strong.     One  has  only  to  observ, 
power  of  leaping  possessed  by  many  species  to  be  convim 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 
PLATE  III. 


A  COCKROACH   {Peri planet  a  ori 
(From  Rolleston). 


HEX  A  POD  A.  7i 

And  the  rapidity  of  their  action  is  even  more  wonderful  than  their 
strength.  This  rapidity  is  best  illustrated  by  the  muscles  that  move 
the  wings.  Every  one  has  observed  gnats  and  other  flies  poising  in  mid 
air  by  a  movement  of  the  wings  so  rapid  that  the  eye  cannot  follow  it. 
Physicists  have  been  able,  however,  to  count  these  vibrations  by  de- 
termining the  pitch  of  the  musical  note  produced  in  this  way.  And 
they  tell  us  that  certain  gnats  vibrate  their  wings  15,000  times  per 
second. 

The  Alimentary  Canal. — The  typical  position  of  this  is  represented 
in  the  diagram  (Fig.  80);  and  on  Plate  III,  illustrating  the  anatomy 
of  a  cockroach,  its  form  in  that  insect  is  shown.  In  larvae  it  is  a 
nearly  straight  tube,  extending  from  one  end  of  the  body  to  the  other. 
But  in  adult  insects  it  is  usually  much  longer  than  the  body,  and  is 
consequently  more  or  less  folded.  It  is  composed  of  parts  differing 
in  form  and  use.  To  these  parts  names  have  been  given  similar  to 
those  used  to  designate  the  corresponding  parts  in  higher  animals; 
thus  we  distinguish  a  pharynx,  an  oesophagus,  sometimes  a  crop,  some- 
times a  gizzard,  a  stomach,  a  small  intestine,  and  a  large  intestine. 

The  Adipose  Tissue,  or  Fat. — On  opening  the  body  of  an  insect, 
especially  of  a  larva,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  things  to  be  seen  is 
fatty  tissue,  in  large  masses.  These  often  completely  surround  the 
alimentary  canal,  and  are  held  in  place  by  numerous  branches  of  the 
tracheae  with  which  they  are  supplied.  Other  and  smaller  masses  of 
this  tissue  adhere  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  abdominal  wall,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  nervous  system,  and  at  the  sides  of  the  body.  In  a  full- 
grown  larva  of  Corydalis  cornuta  I  have  found  the  adipose  tissue  to 
be  greater  in  bulk  than  all  of  the  other  organs  found  inside  of  the 
muscular  walls  of  the  body.  In  adult  insects  it  usually  exists  in  much 
greater  quantity  than  in  larvae. 

The  Blood-vessels.— In  insects  all  parts  of  the  body  cavity  that  are 
not  occupied  by  the  internal  organs  are  filled  with  blood. 
Thus  the  alimentary  canal  is  completely  surrounded  with 
blood,  and  all  the  spaces  between  the  muscles. are  filled 
by  this  fluid.     This  is  a  very  different  arrangement  from 
what  occurs  in  our  own  body,  where  the  blood  is  con- 
tained in  a  system  of  tubes,  the  arteries  and  the  veins. 
We  find,  however,  that  insects  are  not  entirely  deprive 
blood-vessels.     For  there  is  one  which  lies  above  the  ali- 
mentary  canal,  just  within  the  middle  line  of  the  1  oft 

See  Figure  80,  //,  and  Plate  II,  i.  This  extends  from  near 
the  caudal  end  of  the  abdomen  through  the  thorax  mto 
the  head.  That  part  of  this  system  that  lies  in  the  abd< 


THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


is  usually  termed  the  heart.  This  is  a  somewhat  complicated  organ 
consisting  of  several  chambers  arranged  in 
series,  and  each  communicating  with  the 
one  in  front  of  it  by  an  opening  fur- 
nished with  valves.  The  number  and  form 
of  these  chambers  differ  in  different  in- 
sects. Fig.  82  represents  the  heart  of  a 
May  -beetle.  These  chambers  not  only 
communicate  with  each  other,  but  com- 
municate with  the  body-cavity  by  means 
of  side  openings,  which  are  also  furnished 
with  valves.  These  two  sets  of  valves  act 
in  such  a  way  that  when  a  chamber  of  the 
heart  contracts  a  stream  of  blood  is  forced 
towards  the  head,  and  when  it  expands  the 
blood  rushes  into  it  through  the  side  open- 
ings, and  from  the  chamber  behind  it.  At- 
tached to  the  lower  surface  of  the  heart 
and  extending  out  to  the  side  of  the  body 
there  is  on  each  side  a  series  of  triangular 
FIGS  Hear  fM  muscles  :  these  have  been  termed  the  wings 

(after  Straus-Durckheim):  a    of  the   heart   (Plate  II,  6,  and   Fig.  83,  c). 

i&TheSt^hi    In  Fi§ure  c  they  are  represented  cut  away 

h£&£riSS3S2   from    the  Caudal   Part   Of   the   heart"       The 
muscles  are  represented  as   prolongation    of    the    heart,   which   extends 

,  '  .  , 

through  the  thorax  and  into  the  head,  is 
termed  the  aorta. 

The  blood  is  forced  by  the  heart  through  the  aorta  into  the  head, 
where  it  escapes  into  the  body  cavity.  From  this  point  it  flows 
through  the  body  cavity  in  regular  streams,  which  have  definite  di- 
rections, but  which  are  not  included  in  vessels.  They,  like  the  ocean 
currents,  are  definite  streams  with  liquid  shores. 

The  blood  is  usually  colorless,  or  slightly  tinged  with  green  ;  but 
its  circulation  is  made  conspicuous  by  the  movements  of  the  large 
corpuscles  with  which  it  abounds.  In  transparent  insects  it  can  be 
seen  pouring  forth  from  the  cephalic  end  of  the  aorta,  bathing  first 
the  brain,  and  then  passing  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  even  out  into  the 
appendages.  By  tracing  the  course  of  any  one  of  these  currents  it 
will  be  found  to  flow,  sooner  or  later,  to  the  cavity  between  the  wings 
of  the  heart  and  the  back  in  which  the  heart  rests,  and  from  which  it 
receives  its  blood. 

The  Nervous  System.  —  The  central  part  of  the  nervous  system,  as 


cut  away  from   the  caudal 

part  of  the  heart;  d,  dorsal 


HEXAPODA. 


73 


already  indicated,  consists  of  a  ganglion  in  the  head  above  the  oesoph- 
agus, and  of  a  series  of  ganglia,  typically  one  for  each  segment  of 
the  body,  lying  on  the  floor  of  the  body  cav- 
ity, and  connected  by  two  longitudinal  cords. 
In  the  head,  one  of  these  cords  passes  on 
each  side  of  the  oesophagus,  from  the  brain 
to  another  ganglion  in  the  head  belowr  the 
oesophagus,  thus  forming  a  nervous  collar 
about  the  alimentary  canal.  From  each 
ganglion  nerves  arise,  which  supply  the  ad- 
jacent parts;  and  from  the  thoracic  ganglia 
nerves  extend  to  the  legs  and  wings.  This 
series  of  ganglia  is  really  a  double  one ;  but 
each  pair  of  ganglia  are  more  or  less  closely 
united  on  the  middle  line  of  the  body,  and 
often  appear  as  a  single  ganglion.  Figure  84 
gives  a  general  view  of  the  nervous  system  of 
Corydalis  cormtta.  From  the  brain  (a)  two 
large  nerves  extend  to  the  compound  eyes, 
and  a  smaller  pair  to  the  antennae;  the  sub- 
cesophageal  ganglion  (b)  supplies  the  mouth- 
parts  with  nerves ;  and  each  of  the  thoracic 

and  abdominal  ganglia  supplies  its  segment    F|c         NervolM     tem  of 
Of  the  body.  Ctoyrfrilr.   (After  Leidy.) 

How  Insects  Breathe — The  Respiratory  System. — A  common  mis- 
take made  by  beginners  in  the  study  of  Entomology  is  to  suppose 
that  insects  breathe  through  the  mouth  as  do  the  higher  animals. 
Many  a  beginner  has  carefully  poured  chloroform  on  the  head  of  an 
insect  in  the  expectation  of  killing  it  in  that  way,  and  has  been  sur- 
prised at  his  poor  success. 

The  truth  is,  insects  breathe  through  their  sides.     If  an  insect  be 
carefully  examined,  there  can  be  found  along  the  sides  of  the  1. 
series  of  openings  (Fig.  85).     These  are  the  openings  through 


,-hich 


FIG.  85.— Side-view  of  Locust  with  wings  removed. 


the  air  passes  into  the  respiratory  system  and  are  termed  spiraclt 

(spir'a-cles). 


74  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  number  of  spiracles  varies  greatly  in  different  insects.  There 
is,  however,  never  more  than  one  pair  on  a  single  segment  of  the 
body.  They  do  not  occur  on  the  head,  but  are  borne  by  each  of  the 
thoracic  segments,  and  by  the  first  eight  abdominal  segments.  Thus 
there  are  eleven  segments  that  may  bear  spiracles,  but  they  are 
always  lacking  on  some  one  or  more  of  these. 

These  spiracles  are  either  simple  openings  into  the  respiratory 
system,  or  are  provided  with  valves,  sieves,  or  fringes  of  hair  for  the 
exclusion  of  dirt.  They  lead  into  a  system  of  air-tubes  termed  tra- 
chece  (tra'che-ae).  The  accompanying  figures  will  indicate  the  distri- 
bution of  the  main  trunks  of  these  tracheae  in  a  cockroach  (Figs.  86  and 


FIG.    86. — Tracheal   system    of    Cockroach.  FIG.  87. — Tracheal  system  of  Cockroach. 

The  dorsal  integument  removed  and  the  The  alimentary  canal  removed  to  show 

alimentary  canal   in  place.     (After  Miall  the  ventral  tracheal  communications, 

and  Denny.)  (After  Miall  and  Denny.) 

87).  There  is  a  short  trunk  arising  from  each  spiracle  ;  these  are  all 
connected  together  by  a  large  longitudinal  trunk  on  each  side  of  the 
body,  and  by  numerous  transverse  trunks.  From  these  large  tracheae 
there  arise  a  great  number  of  smaller  ones,  not  shown  in  the  figures, 
which  branch  and  subdivide,  and  extend  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  When 
one  dissects  an  insect  the  viscera  are  found  to  be  connected  together 
by  the  ramifications  of  these  tracheae,  so  that  in  order  to  remove  any 
organ  it  is  necessary  to  cut  some  of  them.  The  smaller  branches  of 
the  tracheae  are  exceedingly  minute,  and  are  intimately  associated 
with  the  various  tissues.  By  means  of  these  fine  tracheal  trunks  the 
air  is  carried  to  the  tissues ;  hence  the  blood  plays  a  much  smaller 
part  in  respiration  than  it  does  in  the  Vertebrates. 

Although  insects  are,  strictly  speaking,  air-breathing  animals, 
many  of  them,  as  is  well  known,  live  in  the  water.  The  study  of  the 
ways  in  which  aquatic  insects  breathe  is  a  very  interesting  one ;  it 


HEX  A  POD  A. 


75 


presents  to  us  many  wonderful  modifications  of  structure.  Some  of 
the  more  common  of  these  are  described  in  subsequent  pages  of  this 
book  ;  in  this  place  we  can  only  make  a  few  generalizations. 

The  various  modes  of  respiration  of  aquatic  insects  may  be  classi- 
fied under  two  heads :  first,  those  in  which  the  insects  obtain  air 
from  above  the  surface  of  the  water;  second,  those  in  which  the 
insects  breathe  the  air  that  is  mechanically  mixed  with  the  water. 

With  many  aquatic  insects  the  spiracles  open  beneath  the  wings, 
which  are  folded  upon  the  abdomen.  The  insect,  by  coming  to  the 
surface  of  the  water  and  lifting  the  tip  of  its  wings,  forms  a  cavity  be- 
neath them,  into  which  the  air  rushes.  The  insect  can  then  swim 
through  the  water,  carrying  this  air  witli  it  in  a  position  where  it  can 
be  respired.  When  the  air  becomes  impure,  the  insect  rises  to  the 
surface,  forces  out  the  air  from  beneath  its  wings,  and  takes  in  a  new 
supply.  Water-beetles  and  aquatic  bugs  afford  familiar  examples  of 
this  mode  of  respiration. 

Some  insects  are  provided  with  long  tubes  connected  with  their 
spiracles,  by  means  of  which  they  can  draw  their  supply  of  air  from 
above  the  surface  of  the  water  while  they  crawl  upon  the  bottom  of 
shallow  ponds.  Our  most  common  illustrations  of  this  are  bugs  of 
the  family  Neptdce;  but  the  most  remarkable  development  of  this 
kind  is  exhibited  by  certain  Dipterous  larvae  of  the  family  Syrphida. 
known  as  Rat-tailed  Maggots. 

Although  there  are  many  insects  that  live  in  the  water  and  draw 
their  supply  of  air  from  above  it,  the  greater  number  of  aquatic 
insects  breathe,  as  do  fishes,  the  air  that  is  mixed  with  the  water. 
This  is  accomplished  by  organs  known  as  tracheal  gills.  These  are 
hair-like  or  more  or  less  plate-like  expansions  of  the  body-wall, 
abundantly  supplied  with  tracheae  (Fig.  88).  These  tracheae 
divide  and  subdivide,  and  their  terminations  or  fine  branches 
are  separated  from  the  water  that  bathes  the  organ  only  1 
its  thin  walls.  In  this  way  the  air  contained  in  the  tracheae 
is  separated  from  the  air  in  the  water  only  by  a  d< 
membrane,  which  admits  of  the  transfer  of  gases  I 
them.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  difference  between  a 
tracheal  gill  and  a  true  gill  (as  of  fishes,  Crustacea,  et 
that  the  true  gill  is  supplied  with  vessels  containing  A 
which  is  purified  by  being  brought  in  contact  with  ti 
in  the  water,  while  the  tracheal  gill  is  supplied  withm 
containing  air  to  be  purified. 

Tracheal  gills  are  usually  borne  by  the  abdomen,  so 
times  by  the  thorax,  and  in  case  of  one  genus  of  Stone-fl 


76  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

head.  They  pertain  almost  exclusively  to  the  immature  stages  of 
insects ;  but  Stone-flies  of  the  genus  Pteronarcys  retain  them  through- 
out their  existence. 

Tracheal  gills  vary  greatly  in  form  ;  in  Corydalis  they  are  hair-like, 
and  occur  in  tufts  near  the  lateral  margins  of  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments; in  the  Cadd ice-worms  they  are  thread-like,  more  or  less 
branched,  and  irregularly  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  abdo- 
men ;  and  in  certain  Dragon-flies  they  are  in  the  form  of  large  plate- 
like  caudal  appendages.  (Fig.  88.) 

The  Reproductive  Organs. — The  reproductive  organs  are  situated 
in  the  abdomen,  as  represented  in  Figure  80.  There  is  a  set  on  each 
side  of  the  body ;  but  the  two  sets  usually  open  by  a  common  tube 
near  the  caudal  end  of  the  body.  In  the  May-flies  and  in  the  Ear- 
wigs, however,  the  reproductive  organs  of  each  side  have  a  distinct 
opening.  Thus  May-flies  are  often  found  with  two  bunches  of  eggs 
projecting  from  the  caudal  end  of  the  body. 

All  insects  are  developed  from  eggs  ;  but  there  are  some  appar- 
ent exceptions.  Thus  many  flies  retain  their  eggs  until  after  they 
are  hatched,  if  a  proper  place  for  laying  them  is  not  found  earlier; 
and  in  some  flies  (the  Pupipara)  the  young  attain  a  considerable  de- 
velopment before  they  are  born.  In  the  Plant-lice  (Aphidtda)  there 
is  a  remarkable  alternation  of  reproduction  by  budding  with  the 
sexual  reproduction.  This  is  described  more  fully  in  the  account  of 
that  family. 


THE  ORDERS  OF  THE  HEXAPODA. 

(For  advanced  students.) 

The  Class  Hexapoda,  or  Insects,  is  divided  in  this  work  into  nine- 
teen orders.  This  number  is  somewhat  greater  than  what  has  been 
commonly  adopted  heretofore.  But  we  believe  that  in  the  earlier 
classifications  forms  were  brought  together  in  the  same  order  that 
are  not  closely  related,  and  that  consequently  the  present  classifica- 
tion represents  better  the  true  relationship  of  the  groups  of  insects. 

There  has  been  some  hesitation  on  the  part  of  many  entomolo- 
gists in  adopting  this  division  of  certain  of  the  old  orders,  merely  for 
the  reason  that  they  felt  that  the  old  classification  was  simpler.  But 
we  do  not  share  in  this  feeling.  It  seems  to  us  that  it  is  easier  for 
the  student  to  learn  the  characters  of  a  large  number  of  well-defined 
groups  than  it  is  to  learn  those  of  a  smaller  number  of  vaguely- 
defined  groups. 


HEXAPODA.  77 

In  arranging  the  orders  in  a  linear  series,  as  must  be  done  in  a 
book,  it  is  impossible  to  indicate  in  a  satisfactory  way  either  the  rela- 
tion of  the  orders  to  each  other  or  the  relative  rank  of  the  orders. 
An  effort  is  made  to  place  near  together  closely  allied  orders,  and  to 
treat  first  those  that  are  more  simple  or  primitive  or  generalized  in 
structure,  and  last  those  that  are  more  specialized.  But  this  plan 
could  be  fully  carried  out  only  by  having  several  parallel  columns  on 
the  pages  of  the  book,  each  representing  a  distinct  line  of  descent, 
an  arrangement  which,  to  say  the  least,  is  impracticable. 

What  has  been  done  in  this  work  is  to  place  first  the  Thysanura, 
which  is  doubtless  the  most  primitive  order.  Then  follow  first  the 
orders  that  undergo  an  incomplete  metamorphosis,  and  last,  those 
that  undergo  a  complete  metamorphosis.  Within  these  two  groups  of 
orders  those  with  biting  mouth-parts  are  placed  first,  and  these  are 
followed  by  those  with  sucking  mouth-parts,  except  that  in  the 
second  group  the  Coleoptera  and  Hymenoptera  are  placed  last  for 
want  of  a  better  position.  We  do  not  intend  to  indicate  by  this  that 
these  two  orders  are  closely  related,  or  that  they  are  more  specialized 
than  the  Diptera. 

In  fact,  with  regard  to  at  least  five  of  the  ordersof  insects  (Hemip- 
tera,  Lepidoptera,  Diptera,  Coleoptera,  and  Hymenoptera),  it  seems 
idle  to  us  to  discuss  which  is  the  more  highly  specialized.  Each  has 
been  specialized  in  a  direction  peculiar  to  itself  ;  and  to  attempt  to 
describe  which  is  the  "  highest  "  seems  as  futile  as  the  discussion  by 
children  of  the  question  :  "  Which  is  better,  sugar  or  salt?  " 

We  give  below  a  table  for  use  in  classifying  specimens.  This  table 
is  merely  intended  to  aid  the  student  in  determining  to  which  of  the 
orders  a  specimen  that  he  is  examining  belongs.  No  effort  has  been 
made  to  indicate  in  the  table  the  relation  of  the  orders  to  each  other. 

TABLE  FOR  DETERMINING  THE  ORDERS   OF  HEXAPODA.* 
(This  table  includes  only  adult  insects.') 

A.  Wingless  or  with  rudimentary  wings. 

B.  Mandibles  and  maxillae  retracted  within  the  cavity  of  the  head 

so  that  only  their  apices  are  visible,  p.  82 THYSANURA. 

BB.  Mandibles  and  maxillae  more  or  less  prominent  and  fitted  for 
biting.  (See  BBB  also.) 
C.  Head  with  long,  trunk-like  beak.     (Boreus.}     p.  184. 

MECOPTERA. 

*  See  note  at  bottom  of  p.  10. 


78  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

CC.  Head  not  prolonged  into  a  trunk. 

D.  Louse-like  insects  of  small  size  ;  body  less  than  one-sixth 
inch  in  length. 
E.  Antennae  with  not  more  than  five  segments.     (Bird-lice.) 

p.  100  MALLOPHAGA. 

EE.   Antennae  with  many  segments.     (Book-lice.)     p.  98. 

CORRODENTIA. 

DD.  Insects  of  various  forms,  but  not  louse-like,  and,  except 
in  the  case  of  some  ants,  with  the  body  more  than  one-sixth 
inch  in  length. 

E.  Abdomen  with  short,  conical,  compressed,  many-jointed 
caudal  appendages.     (Cockroaches^  p.  I04...ORTHOPTERA. 
EE.  Abdomen  without  jointed  caudal  appendages. 

F.  Legs  fitted  for  jumping.     (Wingless  Locusts,  Grasshop- 
pers, and  Crickets?)    p.  104 ORTHOPTERA. 

FF.   Legs  fitted  for  running. 
G.  Abdomen  broadly  joined  to  thorax. 

H.   Body  linear.     (Walking-sticks^     p.  104. 

ORTHOPTERA. 
HH.  Body   white   and   somewhat    ant-like   in   form. 

( Termes.)     p.  95 ISOPTERA. 

HHH.  Body  neither    linear    nor  ant-like     in    form. 

(  Wingless  Fire-fly  et  al. )     p.  494 COLEOPTERA. 

GG.   Base  of  abdomen  strongly  constricted.   (Ants  et  al.) 

p.  599    HYMENOPTERA. 

BBB.  Mouth-parts  formed  for  sucking. 

C.  Small  abnormal  insects  in  which  the  body  is  either  scale-like 
or  gall-like  in  form,  or  grub-like  and  clothed  with  wax.  The 
waxy  covering  may  be  in  the  form  of  powder,  of  large  tufts  or 
plates,  of  a  continuous  layer,  or  of  a  thin  scale,  beneath  which 

the  insect  lives.     (Coccid<z.~)     p.  121 HEMIPTERA. 

CC.  Body  more  or  less  covered  with  minute  scales,  or  with 
thick  long  hairs.  Prothorax  not  free  (i.e.,  closely  united  with 
the  mesothorax).  Mouth-parts  usually  consisting  of  a  long 

"  tongue  "  rolled  beneath  the  head.     p.  191 LEPIDOPTERA. 

CCC.   Body  naked,  or  with  isolated  or  bristle-like  hairs. 

D.  Prothorax  not  well  developed,  inconspicuous  or  invisible 
from    above.     Tarsi    five-jointed.      Mouth-parts   developed 
into  an  unjointed  trunk  ;  palpi  present,    p.  413 ....  DIPTERA. 
DD.  Prothorax  well  developed. 

E.  Body   strongly   compressed  ;   tarsi   five-jointed.     (Fleas.) 

p.  49° SlPHONAPTERA. 


HEXAPODA.  79 

EE.  Body  not  compressed;  tarsi  one-,  two  ,  or  three-jointed. 

F.   Last  joint  of  tarsi  bladder-like  or  hoof-like  in  form  and 

without  claws  ;    mouth-parts  forming  a  triangular,  un- 

jointed  beak;  palpi  present,     p.  119 PHYSOPODA. 

FF.  Last  joint  of  tarsi  not  bladder-like,  and  furnished  with 
one  or  two  claws  ;  mouth-parts  forming  a  slender,  usually 
jointed  beak;  palpi  apparently  wanting,  p.  121. 

HEMIPTERA. 
AA.  Winged.     (The  wing-covers,  elytra,  of  beetles  and  of  earwigs  are 

counted  as  wings  in  this  table.) 
B.   With  two  wings. 

C.  Wings  horny,  leathery,  or  parchment-like. 

D.  Mouth-parts  formed  for  sucking.     Wings  leathery,  short- 
ened, or  membranous  at  the  tip.     p.  121 HEMIPTERA. 

DD.   Mouth-parts  formed  for  biting.     Jaws  distinct. 

E.  Wings  horny,  without  veins.     Hind  legs  not  fitted   for 

jumping,     p.  494 .COLEOPTERA. 

EE.   Wings  parchment-like,  with  a  network  of  veins.     Hind 

legs  fitted  for  jumping,     p.  104 ORTHOPTERA. 

CC.  Wings  membranous. 

D.  Abdomen  with  caudal  filaments.    Mouth-parts  rudimentary. 

E.  Hakeres  wanting,     p.  86 EPHEMERIDA. 

EE.  Halteres  present  (males  of  Coccida:\   p.  121.  HEMIPTERA. 

DD.  Abdomen  without  caudal  filaments.     Halteres  in  place  of 

second  wings.     Mouth-parts  formed  for  sucking,     p.  413. 

DIPTERA. 
IJB.  With  four  wings. 

C.  The  two  pairs  of  wings  unlike  in  structure. 

D.  Front  wings  leathery  at  base,  and  membranous  at  tip,  often 
overlapping.     Mouth-parts  formed  for  sucking,     p.  121. 

HEMIPTERA. 
DD.  Front  wings  of  same  texture  throughout. 

E.  Front    wings   horny   or   leathery,    being  veinless   wing- 
covers.     (Elytra) 
F.  Abdomen  with  caudal  appendages  in  form  of  movable 

forceps,     p.  102 EUPLEXOPTERA. 

FF.  Abdomen  without  forcep-like  appendages,     p.  494. 

COLEOPTKKA. 

EE.  Front  wings  leathery  or  parchment-like,  with  a  network 
of  veins. 

F.  Under  wings  not  folded.  Mouth-parts  formed  for  suck- 
ing, p.  121 HEMIPTERA. 


8O  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

FF.  Under  wings  folded  lengthwise.     Mouth-parts  formed 

for  biting,     p.  104 ORTHOPTERA. 

CC.  The  two  pairs  of  wings  similar,  membranous. 

D.  Last  joint  of  tarsi  bladder-like  or  hoof-like  in  form  and 

\vitlioutclaws.     p.  119 ..PHYSOPODA. 

DD.  Last  joint  of  tarsi  not  bladder-like. 

E.  Wings  entirely  or  for  the  greater  part  clothed  with  scales. 

Mouth-parts  formed  for  sucking,     p.    191..  .LEPIDOPTERA. 

EE.   Wings  naked,  transparent,  or  thinly  clothed  with  hairs. 

F.  Mouth-parts  arising  from  the  hinder  part  of  the  lower 

surface  of  the  head,  and  consisting  of  bristle-like  organs 

inclosed  in  a  jointed  sheath.     (Homoptera^)     p.  121. 

HEMIPTERA. 

FF.  Mouth-parts    in    normal    position.      Mandibles    not 
bristle-like. 

G.  Wings  net-veined,  with  many  veins  and  cross-veins. 
H.  Tarsi  consisting  of  less  than  five  segments. 

I.  Antennae    inconspicuous,  awl-shaped,  short   and 
slender. 

J.  First  and    second   pairs   of  wings   nearly   the 
same  length  ;  tarsi  three-jointed,    p.  89. 

ODONATA. 

JJ.  Second  pair  of  wings  either  small  or  wanting; 
tarsi  four-jointed,    p.  86 EPHEMERIDA 

II.  Antennae  usually  conspicuous,  setiform,  filiform 
clavate,  capitate,  or  pectinate. 

J.  Tarsi  two-  or  three-jointed. 

K.  Second  pair  of  wings  the  smaller,     p.  98. 

CORRODENTIA. 

KK.  Second  pair  of  wings  broader,  or  at  least 
of  the  same  size  as  the  first  pair.    p.  93. 

PLECOPTERA. 
JJ.  Tarsi  four-jointed  ;  wings  equal,     p.  95. 

ISOPTERA. 

HH.  Tarsi  consisting  of  five  segments. 

I.  Abdomen  with  setiform,  many-jointed  anal  fila- 
ments.    (Certain  May-flies)    p.  86.    EPHEMERIDA. 

II.  Abdomen  without  many-jointed  anal  filaments. 
J.  Head     prolonged     into     a     trunk-like     beak. 

p.  184 MECOPTERA. 

J.   Head  not  prolonged  into  a  beak.     p.  175. 

NEUROPTERA. 


HEX  A  POD  A.  8 1 

GG.  Wings  with  branching  veins  and  comparatively  few 
cross-veins,  or  veinless. 
H.  Tarsi  two-  or  three-jointed. 

I.  Posterior    wings    smaller    than    the    anterior. 

p.  98 CORRODENTIA. 

II.  Posterior  wings  as  large  as  or  larger  than  the 
anterior  ones.     {Certain  Stone-flies?)    p.  93. 

PLECOPTERA. 
HH.  Tarsi  four-  or  five-jointed. 

I.  Abdomen  with  setiform,  many-jointed  anal  fila- 
ments.   (Certain  May-flies)   p.  86.   EPHEMERIDA. 

II.  Abdomen  without  many-jointed  anal  filaments. 
J.  Prothorax  horny.     First  wings  larger  than  the 

second,  naked  or  imperceptibly  hairy.  Second 
wings  without,  or  with  few,  unusually  simple, 
veins.  Jaws  (mandibles)  well  developed.  Palpi 

small,     p.  599 HYMENOPTERA. 

JJ.  Prothorax  membranous  or,  at  the  most, 
parchment-like.  Second  wings  as  large  as  or 
larger  than  the  first,  folded  lengthwise,  with 
many  branching  veins.  First  wings  naked  or 
thinly  clothed  with  hair.  Jaws  (mandibles)  in- 
conspicuous. Palpi  long.  Moth-like  insects. 
p.  186 TRICHOPTERA. 


LIST  OF  ORDERS  OF  THE  HEXAPODA. 

THYSANURA.  -HEMIPTERA. 

EPHEMERIDA.  /NEUROPTERA.     •* 
.ODONATA.  MECOPTERA. 

PLECOPTERA.  TRICHOPTERA. 

ISOPTERA.  LEPIDOPTERA. 

CORRODENTIA.  •  DIPTERA. 
MALLOPHAGA.  SIPHONAPTERA. 

EUPLEXOPTERA  /COLEOPTERA. 

ORTHOPTERA.  HYMENOPTERA. 

PHYSOPODA. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


Order  THYSANURA  (Thys-a-nu'ra). 

Bristle-tails,  Spring-tails,  Fish-moths,  and  others. 

The  members  of  this  order  are  wingless  insects  which 
undergo  no  -metamorphosis ',  the  larval  form  being  retained  by 
the  adult.  The  mandibles  and  maxilla  are  retracted  within 
the  cavity  of  the  head,  so  that  only  their  tips  are  visible  ;  they 
have,  however,  some  freedom  of  motion,  and  can  be  used  for 
biting  and  chewing  soft  substances.  True  compound  eyes  are 
rarely  present ;  but  in  some  genera  there  is  a  group  of  simple 
eyes  on  each  side  of  the  head.  The  abdomen  is  sometimes 
furnished  with  rudimentary  legs. 

Under  stones  and  decayed  leaves  and  wood,  in  the  chinks 
of  bark,  among  moss,  in  damp 
places,  on  snow  or  on  pools, 
or  sometimes  in  houses,  are 
the  members  of  this  order  to 
be  found.  They  are  for  the 
most  part  very  small  insects, 
but  sometimes  they  are  nu- 
merous and  lively  enough  to 
make  up  for  their  lack  in 
size.  They  have  no  wings, 
but  they  can  either  run  very 
fast  or  jump  very  far.  Their 
mouth-parts  are  usually  fit- 
ted for  biting,  but  are  very 
they  are  retracted  within  the 
82 


under  the  author's  direction.)  8,  labru 
10,  mandible;  n,  maxilla;  12,  labium;  i: 
labial  palpus. 

difficult  to  study,  because 


THYSANURA.  83 

cavity  of  the  head,  and  also  on  account  of  the  small  size  of 
the  insects.  Figure  89  represents  them  in  place  in  the 
head,  and  also  each  separately. 

In  certain  respects  these  insects  represent  a  connecting- 
link  between  the  other  six-footed  insects  (Hexapoda)  and 
the  Myriapods  ;  for  many  of  the  Thysanura  have  rudiments 
of  legs  on  the  abdomen.  It  is  believed,  therefore,  that  they 
are  much  like  the  first  insects  that  appeared  on  the  earth 
in  ancient  geological  times. 

The  Thysanura  undergo  no  metamorphosis,  the  young 
resembling  the  adult  in  form. 

The  name  of  the  order  is  from  two  Greek  words: 
thysanos,  a  tassel ;  and  oura,  the  tail. 

The  Thysanura  include  two  distinct  types  of  insects ; 
these  are  classed  as  suborders,  and  can  be  distinguished  by 
the  following  table : 

TABLE  OF  THE  SUBORDERS  OF  THE  THYSANURA. 

A.  With  bristle-like  and  many-jointed  appendages  at  the  caudal  end 
of  the  body  (in  a  single  genus  these  appendages  are  in  the  form  of 
forceps,  Fig.  91),  and  without  a  sucker  on  the  ventral  side  of  the 
abdomen,  p.  83 ClNURA. 

AA.  With  a  forked  sucker  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  first  abdominal 
segment.  Abdomen  with  a  springing  apparatus  near  its  caudal 
end,  or  without  appendages,  p.  84 COLLEMBOLA. 

Suborder  ClNURA  (Ci-nu'ra). 
The  Bristle-tails. 

Often  the  careful  housekeeper  sees  in  the  ironing-basket, 
or  upon  the  book-shelf  where  she  is  dusting,  a  flash  of  light 
like  a  tiny  thread  of  quicksilver,  that  usually  vanishes  as  soon 
as  seen. 

If  she  is  experienced  she  knows  that  this  streak  of  light  is 
a  little  animal,  half  an  inch  long,  whose  body  is  clothed  in 
shining  scales  like  those  of  a  fish.  Hence  she  calls  it  a  Fish- 
moth.  Its  scientific  name  is  Lepisma  saccharina ;  (Le-pis'ma 
sac-cha-ri'na) ;  it  is  especially  abundant  in  warm  climates, 


84  THE   STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 

and  often  does  damage  to  starched  clothing,  book-bindings, 
and  sometimes  loosens  wall-paper  by  eating  out  the  paste. 
Under  a  microscope  the  Fish-moth  shows  beautiful  markings 


FIG.  f)\.—Jafyx  solifugus. 

(After  Lubbock.)  FIG.    92.  — Ventral  aspect 

of     Macftilis,    showing 
FIG.  90. — Lepisma    sac-  appendages. 

charina.    (After  Lub- 
bock.) 

on  the  shining  scales ;  and  at  the  caudal  end  of  the  body  are 
three  long  bristle-like  appendages  (Fig.  90),  which  suggest 
the  common  name  Bristle-tail  applied  to  members  of  this 
suborder.  Figure  91  represents  Japyx  (Ja'pyx),  a  Bristle- 
tail  in  which  the  caudal  appendages  are  in  the  form  of  horny 
forceps;  and  Figure  92  represents  the  lower  side  of  MacJiilis 
(Mach'i-lis),  another  Bristle-tail,  found  under  stones  and 
loose  bark ;  this  genus  has  rudimentary  abdominal  legs  as 
shown  in  the  figure. 

Suborder  CoLLEMBOLA  (Col-lem'bo-la). 
The  Spring-tails. 

In  the  Spring  in  the  Northern  States,  on  bright  sunny 
days  when  it  is  thawing,  one  often  sees  upon  the  snow  thou- 
sands of  tiny  dark  specks.  In  other  places  pools  of  still 


THYSANURA.  85 

water  appear  to  be  covered  by  a  moving  mass  of  minute 
grains  which  become  more  active  when  disturbed.  These 
masses  as  well  as  the  dark  specks  on  snow  consist  of  thou- 
sands of  little  creatures  that  are  provided  with  a  wonderful 
means  of  jumping.  There  is  on  the  end  of  the  body  a  tail-like 
organ  that  is  bent  under  when  the  insect  is  at  rest,  and  that 
reaches  almost  to  the  head  ;  this  when  suddenly  straightened 
throws  the  insect  high  in  the  air  and  several  feet  away.  This 
action  is  like  a  spring-board  jump,  only  these  little  fellows 
always  carry  their  spring-boards  with  them,  and  have  thus 
won  the  name  of  Spring-tails.  The  species  upon  snow,  called 
the  Snow-flea,  Achorutes  nivicola  (Ach-o-ru'tes  ni-vic'o-la), 
sometimes  proves  a  nuisance  in  maple  sugar-bushes  by  get- 
ting into  the  sap.  Through  a  micro- 
scope a  Spring-tail  appears  very  ab- 
surd, it  has  long  antennae  and  large, 
dark  eye-spots  on  the  face,  which,  to- 
gether with  the  longhair  that  sticks 
forward  on  the  head  and  thorax, 
give  the  creature  a  look  of  solemn 

°  FIG.  ^.—Papirius  fuscus.    (After 

herceness.     Different    species    may  Lubbock.) 

be  found  at  almost  any  time  of  the  year  in  damp  places. 
Figure  93  represents  one  of  these.  In  many  forms  the 
body  is  much  more  slender  than  in  that  figured. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Order  EPHEMERIDA  (Eph-e-mer'i-da). 

/tf~"~ 

The  May-flies.  ^ 

The  members  of  this  order  have  delicate  membranous  wings, 
with  a  fine  network  of  veins  ;  tJie  fore  wings  are  large,  and 
the  hind  wings  are  much  smaller  or  wanting.  The  mouttt- 
parts  are  rudimentary.  The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is  from 
the  Greek  word  ep/iemeros,  lasting 
but  a  day.  It  was  given  to  these  in- 
sects on  account  of  the  shortness  of 
their  lives  after  reaching  the  adult 
state.*  The  May-flies  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  other  net-winged  in- 
sects by  the  peculiar  shape  of  the 
wings  and  the  relative  sizes  of  the  two 
pairs  (Fig.  94). 

The  mouth-parts  are  nearly  want- 
ing, as  these  insects  eat   nothing  in 
the  adult  state  ;  the  antennae  are  very 
small ;  the  abdomen  is  long,  soft,  and 
terminated   by  two  or  three  many- 
Re.  ^.-Mayfly.  jointed,  thread-like  appendages.      In 
their  metamorphoses  these  insects  differ  from  all  others  in 
molting  once  after  they  have  acquired  wings  fitted  for  flight. 
This  order  includes  only  a  single  family. 

*  We  have  not  adopted  the  name  Plectoptera,  which  has  been  proposed 
for  these  insects,  on  account  of  its  similarity  to  Plecoptera. 

86 


EPHEMERIDA.  87 

Family  EPHEMERIDA  (Eph-e-mer'i-dae). 

The  May-flies. 

In  river  or  lake  towns,  during  the  warm  evenings  of  late 
spring  or  early  summer,  the  electric  lights  or  street  lamps  are 
often  darkened  by  myriads  of  insects  that  dash  against  them, 
and  the  pavements  are  made  slippery  by  their  dead  bodies 
which  have  been  trampled  under  foot.  They  are  not  the  ordi- 
nary night-flying  moths  :  if  an  individual  of  the  thousands 
that  cling  to  the  posts  and  buildings  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
light  be  examined,  it  will  prove  to  be  a  delicate  creature  with 
dainty,  trembling  wings  and  two  or  three  long, 
white,  thread-like  organs  on  the  end  of  its  body  ; 
the  body  itself  is  so  transparent  that  the  blood 
within  can  be  seen  pulsating.  The  front 
wings  are  large  and  finely  netted,  and  the 
hind  wings  are  small  or  absent  (Figs.  94,  95). 
So  fragile  are  these  pale  beings  that  they  seem 
like  phantoms  rather  than  real  insects.  No  wonder  that 
poets  have  sung  of  them  as  the  creatures  that  live  only  a 
day.  It  is  true  that  their  winged  existence  lasts  often 
only  a  day  or  even  a  few  hours;  but  they  have  another 
life,  of  which  the  poet  knows  nothing.  Down  on  the 
bottom  of  a  stream,  feeding  on  mud,  water-plants,  or  other 
small  insects,  lives  a  little  nymph  with  delicate,  fringed 
gills  along  its  sides  and  two  or  three  long,  many-jointed, 
and  often  feathery  appendages  on  the  end  of  the  body  (Fig. 
96).  It  has  strong  legs  and  can  both  walk  and 
swim.  After  about  the  ninth  molt—  there  may  be 
twenty  molts  in  all—  there  appear  on  its  thorax 
four  little  sacs  which  are  the  beginnings  of  wings  ; 
with  each  molt  these  grow  larger,  until  finally  the 
last  skin  of  the  water-nymph  is  shed,  and  gills  and 
mouth-parts  are  all  left  behind,  and  the  insect 
comes  forth,  a  winged  May-fly.  But  there  is  still 
another  change  to  be  undergone.  The  insect 
yet  reached  the  adult  state.  After  flying  a 

' 


88  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

short  distance  it  alights  and  sheds  its  skin  again,  a  thin  layer 
coming  off  from  all  parts  of  its  body,  even  from  its  wings. 
After  this  the  delicate  creature  is  more  fragile  than  before. 
It  now  has  but  one  duty  to  perform  in  its  brief  life  in  the 
air,  and  that  is  to  lay  its  eggs.  These  are  sometimes  laid 
on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  sometimes  the  mother  wraps 
her  wings  about  her  like  a  diving-bell  and  goes  down  into 
the  water  and  deposits  her  eggs  on  stones.  The  life  of  the 
nymph  is  from  one  to  three  years,  according  to  the  species. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
Order  ODONATA  (Od-o-na'ta). 

The  Dragon-flies. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  membranous  wings, 
which  arc  finely  netted  with  veins  ;  the  hind  wings  are  as  large 
or  larger  than  the  fore  wings ;  and  each  wing  has  near  the 
middle  of  the  front  margin  a  joint-like  structure,  the  nodus. 
The  mouth-parts  are  formed  for  biting:  The  metamorphosis  is 
incomplete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is  evidently  from  the  Greek  word 
odous,  a  tooth ;  but  the  reason  for  applying  it  to  these 
insects  is  obscure. 


FIG.  97.— Libellula  basalis. 


The  Odonata  are  easily  recognized  by  the  form  ot  their 
wings,  which  are  long,  narrow,  and  powerful ;  and,  possess 
near  the  middle  of  the  front  margin  of  each  a  little  notch 

89 


9o 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


and  a  strong  cross-vein.      This  structure  resembles  in  ap- 
pearance a  joint,  and  is  consequently  named  the  nodus. 

The  mouth-parts  are  fitted  for  biting,  these  insects  being 
voracious  feeders  in  the  adult  state.  Both  the  upper  lip  and 
the  lower  lip  are  large,  and  the  two  nearly  enclose  the  jaws 


FIG.  9».— 


C«<y*-t 

^o/frr^C 
ul/v  V^t-^v^ 
(y  I^JWV 


FIG.  99. — Nymph  of 
Agrionince. 


when  at  rest.     There  are  two  distinct  types  of  Dragon-flies : 
in  one  the  wings  are  extended    horizontally  when    at  rest 
(Fig.  97)  ;  in  the  other  the  wings  are  folded  together  above 
the  abdomen  when  not  in  use  (Fig.  98). 
This  order  includes  only  a  single  family. 

Family  LlBELLULID^E  (Lib-el-lu'li-dae) 
The  Dragon-flies. 

Darning-needles,  Devil's-needles,  Snake-doctors,  Spindles, 
and  Dragon-flies  are  some  of  the  names  given  to  those  in- 
sects which  dart  back  and  forth  over  streams  and  wet  places, 


ODONA  TA. 


their  rapidly  moving  wings  throwing  out  gleams  of  metallic 
color  as  they  go.  Still  more  beautiful  are  they  when  at  rest, 
their  wings  wide-spread  or  folded  together  above  the  ab- 
domen, and  as  rigid  and  motionless  as  if  made  of  iridescent 
glass ;  and  their  great  compound  eyes  shining  like  gold  or 
precious  stones.  But  for  all  their  terrible  names  Dragon- 
flies  are  entirely  innocent  of  any  harm  to  mankind. 
They  neither  sew  up  people's  ears,  as  northern  chil- 
dren think  ;  nor  bring  dead  snakes  to  life,  as  colored 
people  in  the  South  believe;  but  they  are  very 
fierce  enemies  to  their  insect  kindred.  Their  long, 
narrow,  closely  netted  wings  are  strong,  carrying 
them  swiftly ;  and  their  jaws  are  powerful,  and  their 
appetites  good ;  so  it  is  an  unfortunate  insect  that 
falls  in  their  way. 

The  mother  Dragon-fly  lays  her  eggs  in  water  or 
fastens  them  to  aquatic  plants.  The  young  as  soon 
as  hatched  swim  off  and  hunt  for  some  smaller  creatures  to 
eat.  They  have  strong  legs  and  big  jaws,  and  are  real  in- 
sect ogres.  The  lower  lip  when  extended  reaches  far  out, 
and  is  armed  with  powerful  hooks  with 
which  to  grab  their  prey;  but  when  fold- 
ed up  it  is  so  large  that  it  is  called  a  mask 
and  gives  the  insect's  face  a  comical  re- 
semblance to  that  of  a  bull-dog.  These 
nymphs  have  a  peculiar  method  of  breath- 
ing. The  caudal  end  of  the  alimentary 
canal  is  lined  with  tracheae.  The  insect 
alternately  draws  water  into  this  cavity 
and  expels  it ;  and  thus  the  air  in  these 
tracheae  is  purified,  this  part  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal  acting  as  a  tracheal  gill.  This 
process  also  helps  the  insect  in  swimming, 
for  the  water  may  be  expelled  with  such 
nymph  o'f  Dragon-fly",  force  that  the  whole  body  is  sent  forward. 
In  some  species  the  nymphs  have  also  two  or  three  large 


FIG.  ioi.— Exuviae  of 


cU 


92  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

plate-like  gills  on  the  end  of  the  abdomen  (Fig.  99).  Figure 
100  represents  one  of  these  gills  enlarged.  When  the  nymph 
get  its  growth  it  crawls  out  of  the  water  and  rests  on  some 
grass-blade  or  reed ;  then  the  skin  splits  down  the  back  and 
the  Dragon-fly  comes  forth,  while  the  old  skin,  perfect  in 
form,  still  clings  to  its  resting-place  like  a  ghost  until  some 
inquiring  wind  blows  it  away  (Fig.  101). 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Order  PLECOPTERA  (Ple-cop'te-ra). 

The  Stone-flies. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  membranous  wings, 
with  comparatively  few  or  with  many  cross-veins  ;  the  hind 
wings  are  much  larger  than  the  fore  wings,  and  are  folded  in 
plaits  and  lie  upon  the  abdomen  when  at  rest.  The  mouth- 
parts  are  of  the  biting  type  of  structure,  but  are  frequently 
poorly  developed.  The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is  from  two  Greek  words :  plecos, 
plaited  ;  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the  way  in  which 
the  hind  wings  are  folded  when  at  rest. 

Although  the  mouth-parts  are  of  the  biting  type  of  struc- 
ture, the  mandibles  are  often  small,  flat,  and  membranous, 
and  evidently  of  little  use.  It  is  probable  that  as  a  rule 
the  adults  eat  but  little.  The  antennae  are  long,  tapering, 
and  many-jointed  ;  and  in  most  species  the  caudal  end 
of  the  abdomen  is  furnished  with  two  many-jointed  bristles. 
The  nymphs  are  aquatic. 

This  order  includes  only  a  single  family- 

Family  PERLID.E  (Per'li-dse). 
The  Stone-flies. 

Those  boys  fond  of  fishing  know  that  a  good  place  to 
find  bait  is  under  stones  in  streams.  And  doubtless  they 
have  often  observed  that  in  the  swiftest  portion  of  the  stream 
the  turned-over  stones  have  clinging  to  the  lower  surface 

93 


94 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


flat  creatures  from  one-half  inch  or  less  to  one  and  one  half 
inches  in  length.  They  cling  so  closely  and  are  so  nearly  the 
color  of  the  stone  that  they  look  almost  like  fossils.  Their 
antennas  and  caudal  bristles  and  three  legs  on  each  side 
extend  out  like  the  rays  of  a  star  ;  the  six  soft  clumps  of 
white  hair-like  gills,  one  behind  each  leg,  alone  show  that 
they  are  not  engraved  upon  the  stone  (Fig.  102).  These 
insects  are  the  nymphs  of  the  stone-flies,  and  are  the  favorite 
food  of  fishes,  especially  of  brook  trout.  If  a  nymph  is 
fortunate  enough  to  escape  the  fate  of  being  a  luncheon  for 
fish,  when  it  is  full-grown  it  crawls  forth  from  the  water  and 


FIG.  102.— Nymph  of  Stone- 
fly,  Acroneura. 


FIG.  103. — Pteronarcys  regalis. 


transforms  to  a  gray  or  greenish  fly,  with  slender,  closely 
veined  fore  wings  and  wide,  delicate  hind  wings  (Fig.  103). 
The  cast  nymph-skins  are  common  objects  on  the  banks  of 
the  streams  which  these  insects  inhabit.  Several  of  the 
smaller  species  of  the  stone-flies  appear  in  the  winged  state 
upon  snow  in  early  spring,  and  often  find  their  way  into 
houses. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Order  ISOPTERA  (I-sop'te-ra). 

The  Termites  or  White-ants. 

The  members  of  this  order  are  social  insects.  Each  species 
consists  of  several  distinct  castes,  of  which  only  the  "  Kings  " 
and  the  "  Queens  "  are  winged.  TJiese  have  four  long,  nar- 
row wings,  which  are  somewhat  leathery  in  structure,  and 
which  are  furnished  with  numerous  but  more  or  less  indistinct 
veins.  The  two  pairs  of  wings  are  similar  in  form  and  struc- 
ture, and  are  laid  flat  upon  the  back  when  not  in  use.  The 
mouth-parts  are  formed  for  biting.  The  metamorphosis  is  in- 
complete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is  from  two  Greek  words :  isos, 
equal ;  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  two 
pairs  of  wings  are  similar  in  form  and  structure. 

The  wings  of  the  Termites  (Ter'mites),  although  really 
broad  when  compared  to  the  size  of  the  body,  appear 
narrow  on  account  of  their  great  length,  being  in  many 
cases  more  than  twice  as  long  as  the  entire  body. 

The  order  includes  only  a  single  family. 

Family  TERMITID.E   (Ter-mit'i-dae). 
The  Termites  or  White-ants. 

These  interesting  insects  are  not  Ants,  nor  at  all  related 
to  them ;  but  they  have  been  thus  called  because  they  have 
certain  social  habits  that  are  similar  to  those  of  true  Ants. 
They  are  more  abundant  in  the  tropics  than  here ;  and 

95 


90  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

there  build  nests  or  mounds  sometimes  twelve  feet  high,  or 
make  roundish  nests  several  feet  thick  on  trees.  Our 
Northern  species  (Termes  flavipes)  lives  in  old  logs  and 
stumps,  or  under  stones  in  the  ground. 

A  remarkable  thing  about  the  White-ants  is  the  way  they 
are  divided  into  classes,  each  class  fitted  to  do  a  certain  work 

for  the  colony.  First,  there 
is  the  class  of  workers  (Fig. 
104),  which  is  constituted  of 
both  sexes  :  they  are  wingless, 
and  of  a  dirty-white  color, 
and  while  they  resemble  true 
ants  somewhat,  their  waists 
are  thicker.  Their  business  is 
to  bring  food  for  everybody, 
feed  and  bring  up  the  young 
termites,  and  build  nests. 

FIG.  104. —  Termes          FIG.  105. —  Termes 

ftapives,  worker.  fta-vipes,  soldier.        SeCOlld,     there      is      the     claSS 

called  soldiers  (Fig.  105) :  these  too  are  of  both  sexes  and 
wingless,  and  look  somewhat  like  the  workers,  only  their 
heads  are  tremendous  in  size,  being  often  nearly  as  long  as 
the  rest  of  the  body,  and  their  jaws  are  large  and  powerful. 
Third,  is  the  royal  class  called  kings  and  queens.  It  would 
have  been  better  to  have  called  them  fathers  and  mothers, 
as  they  are  the  parents  of  the  colony,  and  do  not  rule  it. 
This  class  when  grown  have  wings  which  lie  flat  upon  the 
back  when  at  rest,  and  may  be  twice  as  long  as  the  body. 
In  May  or  June  in  our  common  species  this  class  swarms 
forth  from  all  the  nests  of  the  neighborhood.  After  a  flight 
of  some  distance  the  wings  are  shed,  and  a  king  chooses 
some  queen  near  him  and  proposes  that  they  start  a  king- 
dom of  their  own.  But  like  mortal  kings  and  queens  they 
cannot  reign  unless  a  kingdom  is  found  for  them,  and  so 
millions  of  these  royal  pairs  die  because  they  have  no  sub- 
jects. But  sometimes  a  fortunate  couple  is  discovered  by 
some  termite  workers,  who  at  once  take  possession  of  the 


I  SOFT  ERA. 


97 


wanderers  and  provide  them  with  food,  and  with  shelter 
in  the  shape  of  a  large  circular  shallow  cell.  In  this  they 
are  really  imprisoned,  but  are  well  cared 
for.  Soon  the  queen  or  mother  begins 
to  develop  eggs,  and  her  body  grows 
enormously.  Finally,  it  is  nothing  but 
a  huge  sac  filled  with  eggs,  looking  more 
like  a  potato  than  anything  else,  and  is 
sometimes  six  or  seven  inches  long  (Fig. 
106).  Of  course  the  poor  queen  cannot 
move  herself  in  the  least,  and  if  she  were 
not  fed  would  soon  starve ;  but  her  king 
remains  devoted  to  her,  and  her  ladies 
and  gentlemen  in  waiting  do  their  best 
to  make  her  comfortable :  they  carry 
away  the  eggs  to  other  chambers  as  soon 
as  they  are  laid,  then  care  for  the  eggs,  and 
feed  the  little  ones  when  they  are  hatched.  FlG  Io6._Oueen  white. 
The  young  termites  are  actj^e,  and  re-  ant'  Ttrmngihnu. 
semble  the  adult  in  forrnTK  If  a  nest  becomes  queenless,  and 
the  workers  are  unable  to  procure  a  queen,  there  are  de- 
veloped in  the  nest  wingless  sexual  individuals,  which  are 
termed  complemental  males  and  females.  But  as  each  com- 
plemental  female  lays  only  a  few  eggs,  it  requires  several  to 
take  the  place  of  a  real  queen. 

All  White-ants  are  miners,  and  avoid  the  light.  They 
build  covered-ways  wherever  they  wish  to  go.  In  hot 
countries  they  are  a  terrible  pest,  as  they  feed  upon  wood, 
and  actually  destroy  buildings  and  furniture  and  libraries. 
They  leave  merely  the  outside  portion  of  what  they  feed 
upon  ;  and  they  have  been  known  to  enter  a  table  through 
the  bottom  of  the  legs  and  to  eat  all  the  inner  portions  so 
that  a  slight  weight  crushed  it  to  the  floor.  In  Florida  they 
do  damage  to  orange  and  other  trees  by  girdling  them  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 


CHAPTER    IX. 
Order  CORROUENTIA  (Cor-ro-den'ti-a). 

The  Psocids  (Psoc'ids)    and  the  Book-lice. 

The  winged  members  of  this  order  have  four  membranous 
wings,  with  the  veins  prominent,  but  with  comparatively  few 
cross  veins;  the  fore  wings  are  larger  than  the  hind  wings; 
and  both  pairs  when  not  in  use  are  placed  roof -like  over  the 
body,  being  almost  vertical,  and  not  folded  in  plaits.  The 
mouth-parts  are  formed  for  biting.  The  metamorphosis  is  in- 
complete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is  from 
the  Latin  corrodere,  to  gnaw,  and 
refers  to  the  gnawing  habits  of  these 
insects. 

The  wings,  especially  the  fore 
wings,  are  often  smoky  in  color  or 
,07.- A«™  nnosus.  variegated.  The  arrangement  of  the 
veins  of  the  wings  (Fig.  107)  differs  in  a  striking  manner 
from  that  of  any  other  biting  insect. 

The  order  includes  two  families,  but  representatives  of 
only  one  of  them  occur  in  the  United  States. 

Family  PsociD^E  (Psoc'i-dae). 
The  Psocids  (Pso'cids]  and  the  Book-lice. 

Books  may  be  old  and  out  of  date  from  our  standpoint, 
but  still  be  of  vital  importance  to  others.  Take  down  from 
the  shelf  a  time-yellowed  book  and  open  its  neglected  leaves 


CORRODENTIA,  99 

and  watch  the  pale  tiny  creatures  that  scurry  across  its 
pages;  examine  one  of  them  with  a  lens,  look  well  at  his 
alert,  knowing,  black  eyes,  and  we  are  sure  you  will  believe 
that  he  is  in  search  of  real  literature,  and  not  merely  a  feeder 
upon  paper,  as  we  are  taught.  Anyway,  scientists  have  con- 
cluded that  these  insects  look  wise  enough  to  bear  the  name 
Atropos  divinatoria  (At'ro-pos  di-vin-a-to'ri-a), 
or  the  Divining  Atropos  (Fig.  108).  They 
are,  however,  more  commonly  called  simply 
book-lice. 

Some  members  of  the  family  Psocidae  do 
not  live  in  books,  but  feed  upon  lichens  that 
are  found  on  the  trunks  of  trees  and  on  fences,         FIG.  108. 
often  a  great  number  being  grouped  together. 
Many  of  these  have  wings,  and  look  like  plant-lice  (Fig.  107). 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  heaps  on  leaves  and  branches,  and  are 
covered  with  a  tissue  of  threads ;  for  the  Psocids  have  the 
power  of  spinning  silk  similar  to  that  spun  by  spiders. 


CHAPTER  X. 
Order  MALLOPHAGA  (Mal-loph'a-ga). 

The  Bird-lice. 

The  members  of  this  order  are  wingless  parasitic  insects,' 
with  biting  moutli-parts.  Their  metamorphosis  is  incomplete. 

The  name  of  the  order  is  from  two  Greek  words  :  mallos, 
wool ;  and  phagein,  to  eat.  Although  some  species  infest 
sheep  and  goats,  feeding  upon  their  wool,  by  far  the  greater 
number  live  among  the  feathers  of  birds.  It  is  due  to  this 
fact  that  the  common  name  Bird-lice  is  applied  to  the  entire 
group. 

The  order  includes  several  families;  but  we  will  not  take 
the  space  to  define  them. 

The  Bird-lice  are  well  known  to  most  people  that  have 
pet  birds  or  who  keep  poultry.  They  differ  from  the  true 
Lice  in  having  biting  mouth-parts,  and  in  feeding  upon 
either  feathers,  hair,  or  the  skin  ;  while  the  true  Lice  have 
sucking  mouth-parts  and  feed  upon  blood. 

It  is  to  free  themselves  from  these  pests  that  hens  wallow 
in  the  dust.  When  poultry  are  kept  in  closed  houses  they 
should  be  provided  with  a  "  dust-bath."  All  poultry-houses 
should  be  cleaned  at  least  twice  a  year,  and  the  old  straw 
burned.  Sprinkling  powdered  sulphur  in  the  nests  and  oiling 
the  perches  with  kerosene  will  tend  to  keep  the  pests  in 
check.  If  a  poultry-house  becomes  badly  infested,  it  should 
be  cleaned  thoroughly,  and  every  part  whitewashed  ;  and 
the  poultry  should  be  dusted  with  Buhach  or  Persian  insect 
powder  (Pyrethruni). 


MALLOPHAGA 


101 


Fig.  109  represents  G0niodes  stylifer  (Gon-i-o'des  styl'i- 
fer),    a   species   which   infests   the    turkey;    and    Fig.    no, 


FIG.  109.— Goniodes  stylifer.  FIG.  \io.-Trichodectesscalaris. 

(From  Law.)  (From  Law.) 


Trichodectes   scalaris  (Trich-o-dec'tes    sca-la'ris),    a   species 
infesting  the  ox. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
Order  EUPLEXOPTERA  (Eu-plex-op'te-ra). 

The  Earwigs. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  apparently  four  wings ; 
the  first  pair  of  which  are  leathery,  very  small,  without  veins, 
and  when  at  rest  meet  in  a  straight  line  on  the  back ;  the 
second  pair  are  large,  with  radiating  veins,  and  when  at  rest 
are  folded  both  lengthwise  and  crosswise.  The  mouth-parts  are 
formed  for  biting.  The  caudal  end  of  the  body  is  furnished 
with  a  pair  of  appendages  wJiich  resemble  forceps.  The  meta- 
morphosis is  incomplete. 

The  name  of  the  order  is  from  three  Greek  words  :  eu, 
well ;  pleko,  to  fold  ;  and  pteron,  wing.  The  word  is  not  well 
formed,  but  it  cannot  now  be  changed.  It  refers  to  the 
unusual  folding  of  the  hind  wings.  This  order  is  termed 
the  Dermaptera  by  many  entomologists,  but  this  name  was 
first  applied  to  certain  other  insects,  and  so  should  not  be 
used  for  these.  The  so-called  fore  wings  of  these  insects 
resemble  the  wing-covers  of  beetles,  and  probably  like  them 
are  not  true  wings.  The  hind  wings  are  very  different  from 
those  of  any  other  insects.  Figure  m  represents  one  of 
these  ;  they  are  furnished  with  radi- 
ating veins,  which  extends  from  a 
point  some  distance  from  the  base 
of  the  wings.  When  the  wing  is  not 
in  use  that  part  over  which  these 
FIG.  m.-wing  of  Earwig.  veins  extend  is  folded  in  plaits  like  a 
fan,  after  which  the  wing  is  folded  twice  crosswise.  Al- 


EUPLEXOPTERA: 


103 


though  these  insects  bear  some  resemblance  to  beetles,  they 
differ  from  them  markedly  in  having  an  incomplete  meta- 
morphosis. The  order  includes  only  a  single  family. 

Family  FORFICULID^E  (For-fi-cu'li-dae). 
The  Earwigs. 

These  are  long  and  narrow  insects,  resembling  rove- 
beetles  in  the  form  of  the  body  and 
in  the  shortness  of  the  wing  -  covers, 
but  easily  distinguished  by  having  a 
pair  of  forceps  at  the  end  of  the  body 
(Fig.  112).  The  common  name,  earwig^ 
has  reference  to  a  widely  spread  fancy 
that  these  insects  creep  into  the  ears 
of  sleeping  persons. 

The  earwigs  are  rare  in  the  North- 
eastern United  States,  but  are  more 
often  found  in  the  South  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  In  Europe  they  are  com- 
mon, and  are  often  troublesome  pests, 
feeding  upon  the  corollas  of  flowers, 
fruits,  and  other  vegetable  substances. 


I 


FIG.  us.— An  Earwig. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
Order  ORTHOPTERA  (Or-thop 'te-rd). 

Cockroaches,  Crickets,  Grasshoppers,  and  others. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings  :  the  first  pair 
are  thickened,  and  overlap  when  at  rest ;  the  second  pair  are 
thinner,  and  are  folded  in  plaits  like  a  fan.  The  month-parts 
are  formed  for  biting.  The  metamorpJwsis  is  incomplete. 

The  order  Orthoptera  includes  some  of  the  very  common 
and  best-known  insects.  The  most  familiar  representatives 
are  those  named  above. 

Although  the  song  of  the  Katydid  and  the  chirp  of 
crickets  are  most  often  associated  with  recollections  of  pleas- 
ant evenings  spent  in  the  country,  we  cannot  forget  that  to 
members  of  this  order  are  due  some  of  the  most  terrible 
insect  scourges  man  has  known.  The  devastations  caused 
by  great  swarms  of  migratory  locusts  are  not  only  matters  of 
historical  record,  but  are  too  painfully  known  to  many  of  our 
own  generation  in  the  Western  States. 

With  the  exception  of  a  single  family  (Mantidcs),  the 
members  of  this  order  are,  as  a  rule,  injurious  to  vegetation  ; 
and  many  species  are  quite  apt  to  multiply  to  such  an  extent 
that  their  destruction  of  vegetation  becomes  serious. 

The  name  of  the  order  is  from  two  Greek  words:  orthos, 
straight;  andpteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the  longitudinal 
folding  of  the  hind  wings. 

In  the  Orthoptera  the  two  pairs  of  wings  differ  in  struc- 
ture. The  fore  wings  are  parchment-like,  forming  covers  for 
the  more  delicate  hind  wings.  These  wing-covers  have  re- 

104 


ORTHOPJ^ERA.  IO5 

ceived  the  special  name  tegmina  (teg'mi-na);  they  are  furnished 
with  a  fine  network  of  veins,  and  overlap  at  the  tip  at  least. 
There  are  many  species  in  which  the  wings  are  rudimentary, 
even  in  the  adult  state.  Such  adults  resemble  nymphs ;  but 
in  the  case  of  the  jumping  Orthoptera,  where  this  peculiar- 
ity most  often  occurs,  nymphs  can  be  distinguished  by  the 
fact  that  the  rudimentary  hind  wings  are  outside  of  the  fore 
wings,  instead  of  beneath  them,  as  in  the  adult  state. 

This  order  includes  only  six  families.  We  are  able,  there- 
fore, to  discuss  all  of  them  in  this  work.  The  following 
synopsis  will  aid  the  student  in  fixing  in  his  mind  the  more 
important  characteristics  of  each  family. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE   FAMILIES   OF  THE   ORTHOPTERA. 

THE  RUNNING  ORTHOPTERA. — The  body  is  oval  when  seen  from 
above,  and  is  very  flat;  the  three  pairs  of  legs  are  similar  in 
form  ;  the  insects  run  rapidly,  p.  106 BLATTID^E. 

THE  GRASPING  ORTHOPTERA. — The  prothorax  is  very  long  and 
slender  ;  the  first  pair  of  legs  are  very  different  from  the  others, 
and  are  fitted  for  grasping,  p.  106 MANTID^E. 

THE  WALKING  ORTHOPTERA.— The  body  is  very  long  and  slender; 
the  three  pairs  of  legs  are  similar  in  form,  and  are  also  very 
long  and  slender  ;  the  insects  walk  slowly,  p.  108 PHASMID^:. 

THE  JUMPING  ORTHOPTERA. — The  hind  legs  ^are  very  much  stouter 
or  very  much  longer,  or  both  stduter*  artd  longer,  than  the 
middle  pair,  being  fitted  for  jumping.  This  group  includes  three 
families : 

The    Short-horned  Grasshoppers,  or    Locusts. — The    antennae    are  r 
shorter  than  the  body.     The  ovipositor  of  the  female  is  short  and 
composed  of  four  separate  plates.     The  tarsi  are  three-jointed. 

p.  108 ACRIDID^E. 

The  Long-horned  Grasshoppers.— The  antennas  are  very  slender 
and  longer  than  the  body.  (This  is  also  true  of  the  crickets.) 
The  ovipositor  is  sword-shaped.  The  tarsi  are  four-jointed. 

p.  112 LOCUSTID.*. 

The  Crickets. — The  antennae,  like  those  of  the  long-horned  grass- 
hoppers, are  very  slender  and  longer  than  the  body,  except  in 
the  mole-crickets.  The  ovipositor  is  spear-shaped  when  exerted. 
The  tarsi  are  three-jointed,  p.  115 GRYLLID^E. 


IO6  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Family  BLATTID.E  (Blat'ti-dse). 
The  Cockroaches. 

After  every  one  is  in  bed  at  night  and  all  is  quiet  in  the 
kitchen  where  there  are  water-pipes,  often  a  throng  of  little 
creatures  come  forth  from  hiding-places  and,  like  brownies, 
take  possession  of  everything.  They  race  around  every 
where,  trying  to  find  something  to  eat ;  they  do  not  care 
much  whether  it  is  raw  or  cooked,  but  will  devour  almost 
anything  that  comes  in  reach  of  their  greedy  jaws.  They 
eat  book-bindings  and  bedbugs,  if  they  find  them,  with 
equal  alacrity ;  and  sometimes  they  get  bold  enough  to 
appear  in  broad  daylight.  The  little,  pale  brown  rascal  called 
the  Croton-bug,  which  came  to  us  from  Europe  and  infests 

the  vicinity  of  the  pipes 
of  the  water  systems  of 
many  of  our  cities,  is  es- 
pecially bold  and  impu- 
dent (Fig.  113).  In  fact, 
in  the  North  our  native 
cockroaches  are  mostly 


FIG.  114.— A  Wing-  FIG.  n5.-Ootheca  of  a  Cock- 

less  Cockroach.  roach. 

respectable,  well-behaved  insects,  living  in  fields  and  forests 
under  sticks  and  stones,  the  emigrant  cockroaches  being  the 
offenders.  Many  cockroaches  are  wingless  (Fig.  114).  The 
eggs  of  a  cockroach  are  laid,  all  at  once,  enclosed  in  a 
sort  of  pod  which  is  more  or  less  bean-shaped  (Fig.  115). 
Thorough  and  frequent  dusting  with  insect-powder  in  the 
cracks  about  the  kitchen  will  rid  a  house  of  these  pests. 

Family  MANTID.E  (Man'ti-dae). 
The  Praying  Mantes,  or  Mule-killers. 
Certainly  they  are  pious-looking  fellows,  with  their  front 
legs  clasped  together  in  front  of  their  meek,  alert  faces,  and 


ORTHOPTERA. 


107 


it  is  no  wonder  that  they  are  called   Praying  Mantes.     But 
the  only  prayer  that  could  ever  enter  the  mind  of  a  Mantis 


FIG.  116. — Phasmomantis  Carolina. 

would  be  that  some  unwary  insect  might  come 
near  enough  for  him  to  grab  it  with  his  hypo- 
critical claws,  and  so  get  a  meal.  Devil-horses* 
rear-horses,  and  camel-crickets  are  other  names 
applied  to  these  insects,  because  of  the  long, 
slender  prothorax  which  makes  them  look  like 
tiny  giraffes.  They  are  also  called  mule-killers» 
from  the  absurd  superstition  that  the  dark-col- 
ored saliva  they  eject  from  their  mouths  is  fatal 
to  the  mule.  But  they  are  absolutely  harmless 
to  both  man  and  beast.  They  are  mostly  tropical 
insects,  and  often  have  wings  that  resemble  the 
leaves  of  trees.  Our  common  species,  Phasmo- 
mantis  Carolina  (Phas-mo-man'tis)  (Fig.  1 16),  is 
confined  to  the  Southern  States.  The  eggs  are  EFlG;m"J;~f 
laid  in  masses  and  overlaid  with  a  hard  covering  a  Mantis, 
of  silk;  the  top  of  the  masses  having  the  appearance  of  be- 
ing braided  (Fig.  117). 


io8 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Family  PHASMID.E  (Phas'mi-dae). 
The  Walking-sticks. 

The  rambler  in  forests  is  often 
surprised  to  discover  that  a  part 
of  the  casually-plucked  branch  in 
his  hand  is  alive.  A  certain  twig 
that  was  stiff  and  motionless  sud- 
denly, when  disturbed,  walks  off 
on  long  slender  legs,  as  awkwardly 
as  if  it  had  never  tried  to  walk 
before.  Strange  and  uncanny 
creatures  are  these  walking-sticks 
with  their  long  pointed  bodies 
and  with  legs  colored  and  looking 
exactly  like  twigs  and  leaf-peti- 
oles. In  the  tropics  their  resem- 
blance to  foliage  is  made  more 
perfect  by  wings  which  are  veined 
like  leaves.  In  the  Northern  States 
we  have  only  one  common  species, 
DiapJieromera  femorata,  (Di-aph-e- 
rom'e-ra  fem-o-ra'ta),  and  that  is 
wingless  (Fig.  118).  Walking- 
sticks  feed  upon  foliage.  Their 
eggs,  which  are  large,  are  dropped 
on  the  ground  under  the  trees  by 

FIG.  i is.— A  Walking-stick.  the  mother,  who  trusts  entirely 
to  fate  to  preserve  them. 

Family   ACRIDID^   (A-crid'i-dae). 
Locusts,  or  Short-horned  Grasshoppers. 

Every  country  lad  is  familiar  with  the  appearance  of 
grasshoppers.  But  there  are  many  kinds  of  these  insects, 
representing  at  least  two  distinct  families.  The  family 
Acrididae,  or  Locusts,  includes  those  grasshoppers  in  which 


OR  THOP  TERA .  1 09 

the  antennae,  are  shorter  than  the  body,  and  in  which  the 
ovipositor  of  the  female  is  short  and  made  up  of  four  sepa- 
rate plates  (Fig.  119).  The  tarsi  are  three-jointed ;  and  on 


FIG.  119. — Side  view  of  Locust  with  wings  removed. 

each  side  of  the  first  segment  of  the  abdomen  there  is  a  cir- 
cular plate  which  is  believed  to  be  an  ear. 

It  is  to  these  insects  that  the  term  locust  is  properly  ap- 
plied. For  the  locusts  of  which  we  read  in  the  Bible,  and  in 
other  books  published  in  the  older  countries,  are  members 
of  this  family.  Unfortunately  in  the  United  States  the 
term  locust  has  been  applied  to  the  Periodical  Cicada,  a 
member  of  the  order  Hemiptera,  described  later.  And, 
what  is  more  unfortunate,  the  scientific  name  Locustidae  was 
given  long  ago  to  the  next  family  and  cannot  now  be 
changed.  It  should  be  remembered,  therefore,  that  the 
locusts  do  not  belong  to  the  Locustidae. 

Locusts  lay  their  eggs  in  oval  masses  and  cover  them 
with  a  tough  substance.  Some  species  lay  their  eggs  in  the 
ground.  The  female  makes  a  hole  in  the  ground  with  her 
ovipositor,  which  is  a  good  digging-tool.  Some  species  even 
make  holes  in  fence-rails,  logs,  and  stumps  ;  then,  after  the 
eggs  are  laid,  th^Jiole  is  covered  up  with  a  plug  of  gummy 
materials.  There  is  but  one  generation  a  year,  and  in  most 
cases  the  winter  is  passed  in  the  egg-state.  This  family  is 
of  great  economic  importance,  as  the  members  of  it  usually 
appear  in  great  numbers  in  every  region  where  plants  grow, 
and  often  do  much  damage. 

The  males  of  many  locusts  are  able  to  produce  sounds. 
This  is  done  in  two  ways:  First,  certain  species  rub  the 
inner  surface  of  the  hind  femora,  upon  which  there  is  a  row 
of  minute  spines,  against  the  outer  surface  of  the  wing-covers. 


HO  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

In  this  case  each  wing-cover  serves  as  a  fiddle,  and  each  hind- 
leg  as  a  fiddle-bow.  Second,  other  species  rub  together  the 
upper  surface  of  the  front  edge  of  the  hind-wings  and  the 
under  surface  of  the  wing-covers.  This  is  done  while  the 
locust  is  flying,  and  the  result  is  a  crackling  sound. 

There  are  very  many  species  of  locusts  in  the  United 
States.     We  have  space  to  refer  to  only  a  few  here. 

The  most  familiar  member  of  the    family  is  the  Red- 
legged    Locust,  Melanoplus    femur-rubrum    (Me-lan'o-plus) 

(Fig.  120).  It  is  more  abun. 
dant  than  any  other  species 
throughout  the  United  States, 
except  in  the  high  dry  lands 
of  the  central  part  of  the 


Mountain  Locust,  Melanoplus  spretus,  abounds.  This  spe- 
cies closely  resembles  the  red-legged  locust,  except  that  it 
has  longer  wings.  It  is  this  insect  that  sometimes  migrates 
into  the  lower  and  more  fertile  regions  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  and  does  such  great  damage.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  at  one  time  it  almost  produced  a  famine  in  Kansas  and 
the  neighboring  States.  Fortunately  the  young  of  this 
insect  hatched  in  the  low  regions  are  not  healthy,  and  die 
before  reaching  maturity.  Consequently  the  plagues  caused 
by  the  emigration  of  this  insect  are  of  short  duration.  There 
are  several  other  species  of  Melanoplus  common  in  this 
country,  but  they  can  be  distinguished  only  by  very  careful 
study. 

The  Clouded  Locust,  Rncoptolophus  sordidiis  (En-cop-tol'- 
o-phus  sor'di-dus)  (Fig.  121),  is  very  common  in  the  Eastern 
United  States  during  the 
autumn.  It  abounds  in 
meadows  and  pastures,  and 
attracts  attention  by  the 
crackling  sound  made  by 

the  males  during  flight.      Its         FlG-  ™.-E»cott*iopku* 
•color  is  dirty  brown,  mottled  with  darker  spots. 


ORTHOPTERA. 


Ill 


The  Carolina  Locust,  Dissosteira  Carolina  (Dis-sos-tei'ra), 
is  common  throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
at  the  North  is  our  largest  species.  It  lives  in  roads  and  on 
bare  places,  and  its  color  matches  the  soil  on  which  it  lives. 
It  is  usually  pale  yellowish  or  reddish-brown  or  slate  color, 
with  small  dusky  spots.  The  hind  wings  are  black,  with  a 
broad  yellow  edge.  It  measures  from  one  inch  and  a  half 
to  nearly  two  inches  in  length. 

The  Sprinkled  Locust,  Chrysochraon  conspersuni  (Chry- 
soch'ra-on  con-sper'sum)  (Fig.  122),  is  a  common  species. 
Here  the  wings  are  a  little 
shorter  than  the  abdomen  in 
the  males,  and  much  shorter  in 
the  females. 

In  the    South    and    in  the 


FIG.  122.— 

,    West 


'hrysochraon  conspersutn. 

we     find    several 


FIG.  \v$.—Leptysnta 


genera  in  which  the  body 
is  very  long  and  slender. 
Leptysma  marginicolle 
(Lep-tys'ma  mar-gin-i- 
col'le)  (Fig.  123),  will 
serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  form  of  these  insects. 

There  is  a  group  of  small  locusts  of  which  Tettix  (Fig. 
124)  is  an  example,  which  is  remarkable  for  the  shape  of 
the  pronotum.  This  projects  backward  like 
a  little  roof  over  the  wings,  and  often 
extends  beyond  the  end  of  the  abdomen. 
With  these  insects  the  wing-covers  are  in  FlG- 12<-- Tttti*- 
the  shape  of  small  rough  scales,  the  wings  being  protected 
by  the  large  pronotum.  These  insects  are  commonly  found 
in  low,  wet  places,  and  on  the  borders  of  streams.  Their 
colors  are  usually  dark,  and  are  often  protective,  closely 
resembling  that  of  the  soil  upon  which  they  occur.  These 
locusts  are  very  active,  jumping  great  distances. 


112 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Family  LOCUSTID^E  (Lo-cus'ti-dae). 
The  Long-horned  Grasshoppers. 

Any  one  that  is  in  the  habit  of  lying  in  the  tall  grass  of 
meadows  or  pastures  and  watching  the  insects  that  can  be 
seen  there  is  sure  to  be  familiar  with  certain  green  grass- 
hoppers, which  attract  attention  by  the  extreme  delicacy 
and  great  length  of  their  antennae.  These  are  our  most 
common  members  of  the  Locustidae.  The 
antennae  are  much  more  slender  than  with 
the  short-horned  grasshoppers  or  locusts,  and 
much  longer,  exceeding  the  body  in  length. 
The  tarsi  are  four-jointed.  The  ear-like 
organs,  when  present,  are  situated  near  the 
elr-likeX^1^  base  of  the  fore  tibiae  (Fig.  125),  and  the 
ovipositor  is  sword-shaped. 

In  those  species  of  this  family  in  which   the  wings  are 
well  developed  we  find  the  males  provided  with  an  elabo- 


FlG. 


.-Leg     of 


FIG.  126.— Wing-cover  of 
Male  Meadow  Grasshopper. 


FIG.  127.—  Wingr-cover  of 
Female  Meadow  Grasshopper. 


rate  musical  apparatus  by  means  of  which  they  call  their 
mates.  This  consists  of  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  veins 
and  cells  of  a  portion  of  each  wing-cover  near  its  base.  This 
arrangement  differs  in  the  different  species  ;  but  in  each  it  is 


ORTHOPTERA.  113 

such  that  by  rubbing  the  wing-covers  together  they  are  made 
to  vibrate,  and  thus  produce  the  sound.  Figure  126  repre- 
sents a  wing-cover  of  the  male  of  a  common  meadow  grass- 
hopper, and  Figure  127  that  of  a  female  of  the  same 
species. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  study  of  this  family  the  more 
common  representatives  can  be  arranged  in  four  groups  : 
The  Meadow  Grasshoppers,  the  Katydids,  the  Cricket-like 
Grasshoppers,  and  the  Shield-backed  Grasshoppers. 

I.  The  Meadozv    Grasshoppers. 
— Under  this  head  can  be  classed 
our    most    common    members    of 
the    family ;    they  abound    upon 
grass    in    meadows    and  in    moist 
places.      Figure  1 28  represents  one 
of  these  insects. 

II.  The  Katydids. — The    chances  are  that    he  who   lies 
awake  of  a  midsummer  night  must  listen  whether  he  wishes 
to  do  so  or  not,  to  an  oft-repeated,  rasping  song  that  says, 
"  Katy  did,  Katy  did ;  she  did,  she   didn't,"  over   and    over 
again.     There  is  no   use    of  wondering   what   Katy  did   or 
didn't  do,  for  no  mortal  will  ever  know.     If,  when  the  dawn 
comes,  the  listener  has  eyes  sharp  enough  to   discern  one  of 
these  singers  among  the  leaves  of  some   neighboring  tree, 
never  a  note  of  explanation  will  he  get.     The  beautiful,  finely- 
veined  wings  folded  close  over  the  body  keep  the  secret  hid- 
den, and  the  long  antennae,  looking  like  threads  of  living 
silk,  will  wave  airily  above  the  droll,  green  eyes  as  much  as  to 
say,  "  Wouldn't  you  like  to  know?"     The  katydids  live  only 
on  trees,  and  sing  only  during  the  night.     There  are  several 
species  of  katydids   common   in  the   United   States.     The 
Western   and    Southern   species,  called  the   Angular-winged 
Katydid,  Microcentrum  retinervis  (Mic-ro-cen'trum  ret-i'ner- 
vis)  lays  its   eggs   in  neat  rows  upon  leaves  and  branches  ; 
the  eggs  are  oval,  and  each  overlaps  its  neighbor  slightly 


114 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


(Fig.  129).  In  many  sections  where  the  katydids  do  not 
occur,  the  song  of  the  Snowy  Tree-cricket,  described  later,  is 
often  mistaken  for  that  of  a  Katydid. 


FIG.  129. — The  Angular-winged  Katydid  and  its  eggs. 

III.   The  Ctrcket-like  Grasshoppers. — These  are  wingless, 
and  resemble  crickets  in  form.  The  most  common  members  of 

this  group  belong  to  the  genus 
Ceuthophilus  (Ceu-thoph'i-lus) 
(Fig.  130).  These  insects  are 
found  under  stones  and  rub- 
bish, especially  in  woods. 

FIG.  130.— Ceuthophilus. 

Very  closely  allied  to  them  are 

the  colorless  and  blind  Cave-crickets,    Hadencecus  (Had-e- 
noe'cus),  found  in  caves. 


OR  THOP  TERA .  1 1  5 

IV.  The  Shield-backed  Grasshoppers. — These  are  also< 
wingless,  and  dull-colored  insects,  which  bear  -  some  resem- 
blance to  crickets.  They 
present,  however,  a 
queer  appearance,  due 
to  the  pronotum  extend- 
ing backward  over  the 
rest  of  the  thorax,  like 
a  sun-bonnet  worn  over  FlG- 

the  shoulders  with  the  back  side  forward.  This  group  is  repre- 
sented in  the  Eastern  half  of  the  United  States  by  Thyreo- 
notus  (Thyr-e-o-no'tus)  (Fig.  131).  In  the  regions  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River  occur  the  "  Western  Crickets,"  belonging 
to  the  genus  Anabrus  (An'a-brus),  and  on  the  Pacific  coast 


32. — Stenopelmatus. 


there  are  large,  clumsy  creatures  with  big  heads,  that  live 
under  stones  and  in  loose  soil,  and  are  popularly  known  as 
Sand-crickets.  These  belong  to  the  genus  Stenopelmatus 
(Sten-o-pel-ma'tus)  (Fig.  132).  CoM^-A.  ^ff  0  !****•  "  > 

Family  GRYLLID.E  (Gryl'li-dae). 
The   Crickets. 

The  crickets  differ  from  both  families  of  grasshoppers  in 
having  the  wing-covers  flat  above  and  bent  sharply  down  at 
the  edge  of  the  body  like  a  box-cover,  instead  of  meeting  in 
a  ridge  above  the  body  like  a  roof.  The  antennae  are  long 


Il6  THE   STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 

and  slender,  like  those  of  the  Locustidae ;  but  the  form  of 
the  ovipositor  is  quite  different  in  this  family,  being  spear- 
shaped,  instead  of  sword-like. 

The  males  of  the  crickets  have  musical  organs  which  are 
even  more  elaborate  than  those  of  the  Katydids  and  meadow 
grasshoppers.  Here  all  that  part  of  each  wing-cover  that 
lies  on  the  back  is  occupied  by  them.  This  gives  the  males 
a  very  different  appearance  from  the  females,  the  wing- 
covers  of  that  sex  being  veined  simply. 

During  the  latter  part  of  summer  and  in  the  autumn  the 
air  is  filled  with  the  chirping  of  crickets.  It  is  an  interest- 
ing thing  to  watch  one  of  these  fiddlers  calling  his  mate. 
By  moving  quietly  in  the  direction  from  which  the  sound 
comes,  and  stopping  whenever  the  insect  stops  chirping, 
but  moving  on  again  when  he  renews  his  song,  one  can  get 
near  enough  to  see  how  he  does  it.  This  can  be  done  even 
in  the  night  with  the  aid  of  a  lantern,  as  the  crickets  do  not 
seem  to  mind  lights. 

Figure  133  represents  the  musical  apparatus  of  a  cricket. 


FIG.  133-— Tegmina  of  male  GryUui. 


From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  large  veins  divide  the  wing- 
covers  into  disk-like  membranous  spaces.  If  the  principal 
vein  which  extends  diagonally  across  the  base  of  the  wing- 


ORTHOPTERA.  1 1/ 

cover  be  examined  with  a  microscope,  it  will  be  seen  to  be 
furnished  with  ridges  like  those  of  a  file  (Fig.  133,  ff).  On 
the  inner  margin  of  the  wing-cover,  a  short  distance  toward 
the  base  from  the  end  of  the  principal  vein,  there  is  a 
hardened  portion  which  may  be  called  the  scraper.  This  is 
shown  enlarged  at  c  in  the  figure.  Each  wing-cover  is  there- 
fore provided  with  a  file  and  a  scraper.  When  the  cricket 
wishes  to  make  his  call,  he  elevates  his  wing-covers  at  an 
angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees  with  the  body ;  then  hold- 
ing them  in  such  a  position  that  the  scraper  of  one  rests 
upon  the  file  of  the  other,  he  moves  the  wing-covers  back 
and  forth  sidewise  so  that  the  file  and  the  scraper  rasp  upon 
each  other.  This  throws  the  wing-covers  into  vibration, 
and  produces  the  call. 

There  are  comparatively  few  species  of  crickets,  but  they 
represent  three  quite  distinct  groups.  These  can  be  dis- 
tinguished as  the  Mole  Crickets,  the  True  Crickets,  and  the 
Tree  Crickets. 

I.  The   Mole    Crickets.  —  These     are 
called  Mole  Crickets  because  they  burrow 
in   the   ground   like   moles.     There   are 
species  belonging  to  the  next  group,  the 
true  crickets,  which  burrow  in  the  ground  ; 
but  the  mole-crickets  are  pre-eminently 
burrowers.     The    form    of   the    body   is 
suited  to  this  mode  of  life.     The  front 
tibiae,  especially,  are  fitted  for  digging ; 
they  are  greatly  broadened,  and  shaped 
somewhat  like  hands,    or   the  feet  of  a 
mole.       Figure    134    represents   one   of 
these    insects.      The  mole-crickets   feed 
upon  the  tender  roots  of  various  plants, 
and  where  they  are  common    they  are 

serious  pests.    '  FlG'  ^f 

II.  The  True  Crickets. — To  this  group  belong  our  com- 
mon, black  acquaintances  that  peep  at  us  from   the  cracks 


118  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

in  the  paving,  or  jump  across  our  paths  when  we  walk  in 

the  fields.  They  are  com- 
mon everywhere ;  some  spe- 
cies even  live  in  our  houses. 
They  usually  feed  upon  plants, 
but  are  sometimes  predaceous. 
FIG.  •s.-x.-Gryiius  aUreviatus.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  au- 

tumn, usually  in  the  ground,  and  are  hatched  in  the  follow- 
ing summer.  The  greater  number  of  the  old  crickets  die  on 
the  approach  of  winter ;  a  few,  however,  survive  the  cold 
season.  Figure  135  represents  the  female  of  a  species  com- 
mon  in  the  East.  In  this  species  the  wings  are  shorter  than 
usual. 

III.  The  Tree  Crickets. — The  common  name  of  this 
group  was  suggested  by  the  fact  that  these 
crickets  are  very  apt  to  inhabit  trees ;  but 
they  occur  also  on  shrubs,  or  even  on  high 
herbs  and  tall  grass.  The  most  abundant 
species  in  the  East  is  the  Snowy  Tree- 
cricket,  CEcanthus  niveus  (CE-can'thus  niv'e- 
us).  This  is  a  delicate,  whitish-green  insect, 
that  lives  upon  shrubs  or  plants.  The 
female  often  does  serious  damage  by  laying 
her  eggs  in  raspberry  canes,  causing  them  to 
die  above  the  puncture.  Canes  thus  in-  „ 

FIG.  136. — CEc 

jured  should  be  cut  and  burned  in  the  niveus,  maie. 
early  spring  before  the  eggs  are  hatched.  Figure  136  shows 
the  male,  his  closely  folded  wings  showing  beneath  his 
delicate  transparent  wing-covers.  The  female  has  her  wing- 
covers  wrapped  closely  around  her  body,  making  her  look 
much  narrower  than  the  male. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
Order  PHYSOPODA  (Phy-sop'o-da). 

Thrips. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings ;  these  are 
similar  in  form,  long,  narrow,  membranous,  not  folded,  with 
but  few  or  no  veins,  and  only  rarely  with  cross  veins ;  tJiey 
are  fringed  ^vith  long  hairs,  and  are  laid  horizontally  along 
the  back  when  at  rest.  The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete.  The 
mouth-parts  are  probably  used  chiefly  for  sucking;  they  are 
intermediate  in  form  between  those  of  the  sucking  and  those  of 
the  biting  insects  (Fig.  138);  t/ie  mandibles  are  bristle-like ; 
the  maxilla  are  triangular,  flat,  and  furnished  with  palpi ; 
and  the  labial  palpi  are  also  present.  The  tarsi  are  two- 
jointed,  bladder-like  at  tip,  and  without  claws. 

Pull  to  pieces  a  clover-blossom  or  a  daisy,  and  you  will 
probably  find  at  the  base  of  the  florets  many  wee,  black, 
red,  or  yellowish  insects.  These  are  so  small  that  it  would 
take  a  dozen  or  more  placed  end  to  end  to  measure  an  inch  ; 
and  when  disturbed  they  are  apt  to  thrust  the  end  of  their 
bodies  up  in  the  air  as  if  they  meant  to  sting,  looking  as 
ferocious  as  such  small  insects  can  look.  They  are  extremely 
lively,  leaping  or  taking  flight  with  great  agility.  Under  a 
microscope  their  four  narrow  wings,  delicately  fringed  all 
around  with  long  hairs,  may  be  seen  ;  these  wings  are  laid 
flat  down  the  back  when  at  rest.  The  red  ones  are  wingless, 
and  are  the  young  of  the  black  species.  Some  species  eat 
other  insects,  but  most  of  them  live  upon  vegetation.  There 
is  one  species,  Limot]irips  poaphagus  (Lim'o-thrips  po-aph'a- 

ng 


I2O 


THE  STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


gus)  that  damages  timothy  and  June-grass  very  much  by 
working  in  the  upper  joints.  In  the  early  summer  the  dead 
and  yellow  heads  of  grasses  thus  destroyed  may  be  seen 
everywhere  in  grass-growing  regions.  Some  species  live 
under  the  bark  of  trees.  The  accompanying  figure  repre- 
sents one  of  these  insects  very  greatly  enlarged  (Fig.  137). 


FIG.  137.—  Thrifts. 


FIG.  138.— Mouth-parts  of  Thrips.  (Drawn  by  J. 
M.  Stedman,  under  the  author's  direction.)  8, 
labrum;  10,  mandible;  IT,  maxilla;  12,  labium. 


The  insect  infesting  grapes,  called  "  The  Thrips,"  is 
not  a  Thrips  at  all,  but  a  leaf-hopper  belonging  to  the 
Homoptera. 

The  name  Physopoda  is  from  two  Greek  words  :  pliysao, 
to  blow  up,  and  pous,  a  foot.  It  refers  to  the  curious 
bladder-like  feet  of  these  insects.  Figure  138  represents  the 
mouth-parts  of  Thrips. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
Order  HEMIPTERA  (He-mip'te-ra). 

Bugs,  Lice,  Aphids,  and  others. 

The  winged  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings  ;  in  one 
sub-order  the  first  pair  of  wings  are  thickened  at  the  base,  with 
thinner  extremities  which  overlap  on  the  back ;  in  another 
sub-order  the  first  pair  of  wings  are  of  the  same  tJiickncss 
throughout^  and  usually  slope  at  the  sides  of  the  bod}'.  The 
mouth-parts  are  formed  for  sucking.  The  metamorphosis  is 
incomplete. 

The  order  Hemiptera  includes  many  well-known  pests: 
here  belong  the  true  bugs,  the  lice,  the  aphids,  the  scale 
insects,  and  many  other  forms  injurious  to  plants.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  of  the  species  are  ranked  among  beneficial 
insects  on  account  of  their  predaceous  habits ;  while  still 
others,  as  the  cochineal  and  lac  insects,  furnish  us  with 
useful  products. 

The  name  Hemiptera  is  from  two  Greek  words  :  Jiemi, 
half;  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  was  suggested  by  the  form  of 
the  first  pair  of  wings  in  the  true  bugs.  Here  the  basal  half 
of  these  organs  is  thickened  somewhat  like  the  wing-covers 
of  beetles,  only  the  terminal  half  being  wing-like.  The 
second  pair  of  wings  are  membranous,  and  when  at  rest  are 
folded  beneath  the  first  pair. 

The  mouth-parts  are  formed  for  piercing  and  sucking. 
Without  dissection,  they  usually  appear  as  a  slender  jointed 
beak,  arising  at  the  base  of  a  shorter,  pointed  upper  lip. 
This  beak  consists  of  four  bristles,  enclosed  in  a  fleshy, 


122  7WE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

jointed  sheath  (Fig.  139).  Two  of  the  bristles  represent  the 
mandibles,  and  two  the  maxillae.  The  sheath  is  supposed 
to  consist  of  the  labium  and  the  grown-together  labial  palpi. 
In  their  transformation  the  Hemiptera  pass  through  an 
incomplete  metamorphosis ;  the  young  nymphs  resembling 


FIG.  i  3  9. — 

Mouth-parts  FIG.  140,  a. — Head  of  an  heter-  FIG.  140,  b.  —  Head 

of  Bug.    (Af-                               opterous  insect.  of  an  homopterous 

ter  Muhr.)  insect. 

the  adults  more  or  less  closely  in  form,  and  the  wings  being 
gradually  developed  at  successive  molts. 

This  order  includes  three  well-marked  groups,  which  are 
ranked  as  suborders.  The  first  of  these,  the  Heteroptera, 
includes  the  true  bugs.  They  are  placed  first,  as  we  believe 
they  resemble  the  ancient  Hemiptera — the  first  to  appear  on 
the  earth — more  closely  than  the  members  of  either  of  the 
other  suborders.  The  second  suborder,  the  Parasitica,  in- 
cludes the  lice.  These  insects  are  much  lower  in  structure 
than  the  Heteroptera  ;  but  we  believe  that  this  simplicity 
in  structure  is  a  result  of  degradation  due  to  parasitic  habits, 
and  therefore  really  represents  a  later  development  than 
that  shown-  by  the  Heteroptera.  In  other  words,  the  lice 
are  probably  descendants  of  some  ancient  form  resembling 
some  of  the  existing  Heteroptera.  Among  the  Heteroptera 
the  bedbug  exhibits  a  similar  downward  tendency.  The 
third  suborder,  the  Homoptcra,  includes  some  forms  that 


HEMIPTERA.  12$ 

are  perhaps  as  primitive  as  any  of  the  existing  Heteroptera; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  we  find  here  forms  that  represent 
the  widest  divergence  from  the  hemipterous  type  known  to 
us. 

These  three  suborders  can  be  separated  by  the  following 
table : 

A.   Wingless  Hemiptera,  parasitic  upon   man  and  other  Mammals, 

with  a  fleshy,  unjointed  beak  p.  147 II.  PARASITICA. 

AA.   Hemiptera  with  or  without  wings,  but  with  a  jointed  beak. 
B.   First  pair  of  wings  thickened  at  the  base,  with  thinner  extremi- 
ties, which  overlap  on  the  back ;  beak  arising  from  the  front 

part  of  the  head  (Fig.  140,  a),  p.  123 1.  HETEROPTERA. 

BB.  Wings  of  the  same  thickness  throughout,  and  usually  sloping 
at  the  sides  of  the  body;  beak  arising  from  the  hinder  part  of 
the  lower  side  of  the  head  (Fig.  140,  b)  p.i48.III.  HOMOPTERA. 

Suborder  HETEROPTERA  (Het-e-rop'te-ra). 
The  True  Bugs. 

People  that  know  but  little  regarding  entomology  are  apt 
to  apply  the  term  bug  to  any  kind  of  insect ;  but,  strictly 
speaking,  only  the  Hemiptera  are  bugs,  and  many  restrict 
the  term  to  members  of  this  suborder.  We  therefore  des- 
ignate the  Heteroptera  as  the  True  Bugs. 

The  bugs  are  very  common  insects.  They  abound  on 
grass  and  on  the  foliage  of  other  plants.  Certain  foul-smell- 
ing members  of  this  group  are  well-known  pests  in  gardens, 
and  upon  berries  in  fields. 

In  this  suborder  the  first  pair  of  wings  are  thickened  at 
the  base,  while  the  tips,  which  overlap  each  other  on  the 
back  of  the  insect,  are  thin  and  transparent ;  and  the  beak 
arises  from  the  front  part  of  the  head  (Fig.  140,  a).  Some  of 
the  Heteroptera  live  in  water,  others  on  land,  while  still 
others  live  on  the  surface  of  the  water  or  in  marshy  places. 
Each  of  these  modes  of  life  are  characteristic  of  certain  fami- 
lies. The  name  Heteroptera  is  from  the  Greek  Jietcros,  di- 
verse, and  pteron,  a  wing.  The  following  synopsis  will  aid 


124  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

the  student  in  learning  the  characters  of  the  families  of  this 
suborder : 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  HETEROPTERA. 
THE  SHORT-HORNED  BUGS.    Bugs  with  short  antennae,  which  are 

nearly  or  quite  concealed  beneath  the  head. 
Bugs  that  live  within  water. 

The  Water-boatmen,  Family  CORISID^E.     (p.  129.) 
The  Back-swimmers,  Family  NoTONECTioyE.     (p.  130.) 
The  Water  scorpions,  Family  NEPID^E.     (p.  130.) 
The  Giant  Water-bugs,  Family  BELOSTOMID^:.     (p.  131.) 
The  Creeping  Water-bugs,  Family  NAUCORID.E.     (p.  133.) 
Bugs  that  live  near  water. 

The  Toad-shaped  Bugs,  Family  GALGULID^E.     (p.  133.) 
THE  LONG-HORNED  BUGS.     Bugs  with  antennae  at  least  as  long  as 
the  head,  and  prominent  except  in  the  Phymatida,  where 
they  are  concealed  under  the  sides  of  the  prothorax. 
The  Semi-aquatic  Bugs. 

The  Shore-bugs,  Family  SALDID^E.     (p.  134.) 

The  Broad-shouldered  Water-striders,  Family  VELIID^E.     (p. 

I34-) 

The  Water-striders,  Family  HYDROBATID.^E.     (p.  135.) 
The  Marsh-treaders,  Family  LIMNOBATID^E.     (p.  136.) 
The  Land-bugs. 

The  Land-bugs  with  four-jointed  antenna. 

The  Thread-legged  Bugs,  Family  EMESID/E.     (p.  136.) 

The  Assassin-bugs,  Family  REDUVIID^E.     (p.  137.) 

The  Damsel-bugs,  Family  NABID^E.     (p.  138.) 

The  Ambush-bugs,  Family  PHYMATID^;.     (p.  138.) 

The  Flat- bugs,  Family  ARADID/E.     (p.  139.) 

The  Lace-bugs,  Family  TINGITID^E.     (p.  139.) 

The  Bed-bug  and  the  Flower-bugs,  Family  AcANTHUD.t. 

(p.  140). 

The  Leaf-bugs,  Family  CAPSID.E.     (p.  140.) 
The  Red-bug  Family,  Family  PYRRHOCORID/E.     (p.  141.) 
The  Chinch-bug  Family,  Family  LVG&IDM.     (p.  142.) 
The  Stilt-bugs,  Family  BERYTID^E.     (p.  143.) 
The  Squash-bug  Family,  Family  COREID^;.      (p.  143.) 
The  Land-bugs  with  five-jointed  antenna. 

The  Stink-bug  Family,  Family  PENTATOMID^E.     (p.  144.)    ' 
The  Burrower-bugs,  Family  CYDNID^:.     (p.  145). 
The  Negro-bugs,  Family  CORIMEL/ENID/E.     (p.  146.) 
The  Shield-backed  bugs,  Family  SCUTELLERID^E.     (p.  146  j 


HEMIPTERA.  12$ 

Classification  of  the  Heteroptera. 

(For  advanced  students.} 

In  order  to  use  the  following  table  for  determining  the  families  of 
bugs,  the  student  should  become  familiar  with  the  names  applied  to 
different  parts  of  the  fore-wings  of  these  insects.  The  thickened 
basal  portion  is  composed  of  two  pieces  joined  together  at  their 
sides ;  one  of  these  is  narrow  and  is  the  part  next 
to  the  scutellum  when  the  wings  are  closed  (Fig. 
141,  cl)\  this  is  distinguished  as  the  ctavus  (c\a.'vus). 
The  other  broader  part  is  the  corium  (co'ri-um)  FlG  —Diagram  of 
(Fig.  141,  co).  The  terminal  portion  of  the  wing-  wing-cover  of  a  , 
cover  is  designated  as  the  membrane  (Fig.  141,  m.) 
In  certain  families  a  triangular  portion  of  the  terminal  part  of  the 
corium  is  separated  as  a  distinct  piece;  this  is  the  cuneus  (cu'ne-us) 
(Fig.  141,  cii).  In  certain  other  cases,  a  narrow  piece  on  the  costal) 
margin  of  the  corium  is  separated  by  a  suture  ;  this  is  the  emboltum 
(em-bo'li-um)  (Fig.  141,^). 


FIG.   145. 
Pyrrhocoridte. 

TABLE  FOR  DETERMINING   THE   FAMILIES   OF  THE 
HETEROPTERA. 

A    Antennae  shorter  than  the  head,  and  nearly  or  quite  concealed  in 
a  cavity  beneath  the  eyes. 
B.   Hind-tarsi  without  claws. 

C.  Fore-tarsi  flattened  with  a  fringe  of  hairs  on  the  edge,  and 
without  claws  ;  head  overlapping  the  prothorax.     p.  129. 

CORISID/E. 

CC.  Fore-tarsi  of  the  usual  form,  and  with  two  claws;  head  in- 
serted in  the  prothorax.     p.  130 NOTONECTIDJE. 


126  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

BB.   Hind-tarsi  with  two  claws. 

C.  Caudal  end  of  the  abdomen  furnished  with  a  respiratory  tube 
composed  of  a  pair  of  grooved,  thread-like  organs,     p.  130. 

NEPID^E. 
CC.  Caudal  end  of  abdomen  without  respiratory  tube. 

D.  Legs  flattened,  fitted  for  swimming  ;  caudal  end  of  the  ab- 
domen furnished  with  a  pair  of  strap-like  appendages  (these 
appendages  are  retractile  and  are  frequently  withdrawn  from 

sight),    p.  131 BELOSTOMID^E. 

DD.  Legs  fitted  for  walking;  abdomen  without  strap-like 
caudal  appendages. 

E.  Without  ocelli,     p.  133 NAUCORID^E. 

EE.  Ocelli  present,    p.  133 GALGULID^E. 

AA.  Antennae  at  least  as  long  as  the  head,  usually  free,  rarely  (Phy- 
inatzd(e)  fitting  in  a  groove  under  the  lateral  margin  of  the  pro- 
notum. 
B.  Body  linear;    head   as   long  as   the   three  thoracic  segments. 

p.  136 LlMNOBATIDjE. 

BB.   Body  of  various  forms,  but,  when  linear,  with  the  head  shorter 
than  the  thorax. 

C.  Last  segment  of  the  tarsi  more  or  less  split,  and  with  the 
claws  inserted  before  the  apex. 

D.  Body  usually  elongated;  prothorax  narrow;  beak  four- 
jointed;  second  and  third  pairs  of  legs  extremely  long  and 

slender,      p.  1 35 HYDROBATID-E. 

DD.  Body  usually  stout,  oval,  and  broadest  across  the  protho- 
rax ;  beak  three-jointed;  legs  not  extremely  long.  p.  134. 

VELIID^E. 

CC.  Last  segment  of  the  tarsi  entire,  and  with  the  claws  inserted 
at  the  apex. 
D.   Antennas  four-jointed.* 

E.  Wing-covers  resembling  network,  and  very  rarely  (Piesma 
with  any  distinction  between  the  corium  and  the  mem- 
brane, p.  139 TlNGITID/E. 

EE.  Wing-covers  of  various  forms  or  absent,  but  not  of  the 
form  presented  by  the  Tingitidas.     See  Fig.  165. 
F.  Beak  three- jointed. 


*  In  certain  families  there  are  minute  intermediate  segments  between  the 
principal  segments  of  the  antennae.  For  the  purposes  of  this  table  these 
intermediate  segments  are  not  counted. 


HEMIPTERA.  127 

G.  Wing-covers  when  well  developed  with  a  cuneus  (Fig. 
143);  those  forms  in  which  the  adult  has  rudimentary 
wing-covers  have  no  ocelli,  p.  140. . . .  ACANTHIID^E. 

GG.  Wing-covers  when  well  developed  without  a  cuneus ; 
those  forms  in  which  the  adult  has  rudimentary  wing- 
covers  have  ocelli. 
H.  Ocelli  wanting. 

I.  Body  linear,      p.  136 EMESID^E. 

II.  Body  greatly  flattened,     p.  139 ARADID^E. 

III.  Body  of  ordinary  form.     p.  137.     REDUVIID^E. 
HH.  Ocelli  present,  though  sometimes  difficult  to  see. 

I.  Beak  very  long,  reaching  to  or  beyond  the  inter- 
mediate coxae,     p.  134 SALDID^L. 

II.  Beak  not  reaching  the  intermediate  coxae. 

J.  Front    legs    with    greatly    thickened    femora. 

p.  138 PHYMATID^E. 

JJ.  Front  femora  somewhat  thickened,  but  much 
less  than  half  as  wide  as  long.     p.  137. 

REDUVIID/E. 
FF.  Beak  four-jointed. 

G.  Front  legs  fitted  for  grasping  prey,  the  tibiae  being 
armed  with  spines  and  capable  of  being  closed  tightly 
upon  the  femora,  which  are  stout.  In  the  forms  with 
long  wings  the  membrane  is  usually  furnished  with 
four  long  veins,  bounding  three  discal  cells  which  are 
often  open.  From  these  cells  diverge  veins  which 
form  several  marginal  cells.  (Fig.  142).  p.  138. 

NABID^E. 
GG.  Front  legs  fitted  for  walking. 

H.  Wing-covers  with  cuneus.  Membrane  with  one 
or  two  closed  cells  at  its  base,  otherwise  without 

veins.    (Fig.  144.)    p.  140... CAPSID^E. 

HH.  Wing-covers  without  cuneus.  Membrane  with 
four  or  five  simple  or  anastomosing  veins  arising 
from  the  base  ;  or  with  a  large  number  of  veins  aris- 
ing from  a  cross-vein  at  the  base. 

I.  Ocelli  wanting ;  membrane  with  two  large  cells 
at  the  base,   and   from  these   arise  about  eight 
branching  veins.     (Fig.  145.)     p.   140. 

PYRRHOCORID^E. 

II.  Ocelli  usually  present. 


128  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

J.   Head  with  a  transverse  incision  in  front  of  the 
ocelli,  which    are  always   present.      (Fig.  175.) 

p.  143 —  BERYTID^E. 

JJ.   Head  without  transverse  incision. 

K.  Membrane  with  four  or  five  simple  veins 
arising  from  the  base  of  the  membrane  ;  the 
two  inner  ones  sometimes  joined  to  a  cell  near 

the  base.    (Fig.  146.)    p.  142 LYG^ID^E. 

KK.  Membrane  with  many,  usually  forked 
veins,  springing  from  a  transverse  basal  vein. 

(Fig.  147.)     p.   143 COREIDJ-E. 

OD.     Antennae  five-jointed. 

E.  Scutellum  nearly  flat,  narrowed  behind. 

F.  Tibiae   unarmed  or   furnished  with  very  short  spines. 

p.  144 PENTATOMID^. 

FF.  Tibiae  armed  with  strong  spines  in  rows.     p.    145. 

CYDNID^E. 

EE.  Scutellum  very  convex,  covering  nearly  the  whole  ab- 
domen. 

F.  Lateral   margins   of  the   scutellum  with   a    furrow  in 
which   the   edge   of  the   wing-cover   fits   when   closed. 

p.    146 CORIMELiENID^E. 

FF.  Lateral  margins  of  the  scutellum  without  a  furrow. 

p.  146 SCUTELLERID^E. 

In  the  following  pages  we  have  discussed  the  families  of  the  Hete- 
roptera  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  commonly  arranged  by  writers 
on  these  insects.  The  aquatic  families  are  placed  first,  the  semi- 
aquatic  next,  and  the  terrestrial  last.  We  do  not  believe,  however, 
that  this  represents  well  the  lines  of  development  of  these  insects.  It 
seems  probable  to  us  that  some  of  the  terrestrial  forms,  as  the  Penta- 
tomidae,  resemble  the  ancient  Heteroptera  more  closely  than  do  the 
aquatic  forms  ;  and  that  the  aquatic  forms  are  really  very  highly  spe- 
cialized and  represent  the  summit  of  one  of  the  lines  of  development. 
Perhaps  the  Scutelleridae  represent  the  summit  of  another  line. 
But  as  we  have  been  unable  to  give  the  matter  sufficiently  thorough 
study  to  warrant  our  proposing  a  new  arrangement,  it  seems  best  to 
follow  the  old  one,  merely  indicating  our  belief  in  the  necessity  for  a 
revision  of  the  suborder. 


HEMIPTERA.  \2$ 

Family  CORISID^:  (Co-ris'i-dae). 
The  Water-boatmen. 

These  are  oval,  gray  and  black,  mottled  bugs,  usually 
less  than  half  an  inch  in  length,  which  occur  in  the  streams, 
ponds,  and  lakes  of  the  whole  United 
States.  The  characteristic  form  and 
markings  of  these  insects  are  shown  in 
Figure  148.  These  Water-boatmen 
have  the  body  flattened  above,  and 
swim  upon  the  ventral  surface ;  in 
these  respects  they  differ  from  the  mem- 
bers of  the  next  family.  FIG.  ^.-corisa  *nd*iata. 

The  body  of  these  insects,  as  they  swim  through  the 
water,  is  almost  completely  enveloped  in  air,  which  glitters 
like  a  silver  armor.  This  air  is  breathed  by  the  insects  while 
they  remain  under  water,  and  in  good  water  it  is  purified 
by  contact  with  the  fine  particles  of  air  scattered  through 
the  water ;  so  that  the  insects  can  breathe  their  coats  of  air 
again  and  again  indefinitely.  This  is  the  case  especially 
when  they  are  in  their  favorite  attitude,  anchored  near  the 
bottom  of  a  pond  or  aquarium.  Here  they  will  remain  for 
a  long  time  clinging  to  some  object  by  their  fore  legs,  and 
with  their  hind  legs  stretched  out  sidewise  ;  these  they  move 
frequently  as  when  swimming.  The  result  of  this  movement 
is  to  cause  a  current  of  Avater  to  pass  over  the  coat  of  air, 
purifying  it. 

The  body  of  these  insects  with  the  air  clinging  to  it  is 
much  lighter  than  water;  consequently,  whenever  they  loose 
their  hold  upon  the  object  to  which  they  have  been  clinging, 
they  rise  quickly  to  the  surface,  unless  they  prevent  it  by 
swimming.  They  occasionally  float  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  can  leap  into  the  air  from  the  water  and  take 
flight.  They  feed  upon  other  insects  and  lay  their  eggs 
upon  water-plants.  All  of  the  North  American  species  of 
this  family  belong  to  the  genus  Corisa  (Cor'i-sa). 


I3O  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Family  NOTONECTID^E  (No-to-nec'ti-dae). 
The  Back-swimmers. 

The  Back-swimmers  have  the  back  shaped  like  the 
bottom  of  a  boat,  instead  of  flat  like  the  true  water-boatmen 
and  they  differ  from  all  other  aquatic  bugs  in  that  they 
always  swim  on  their  backs. 

The  favorite  attitude  of  the  Back-swimmers  is  floating  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  back  downward,  with  the  hind  end 
of  the  body  projecting  sufficiently  to  admit  of  air  being 
drawn  into  the  space  beneath  the  wings.  When  in  this 
position  their  long  oar-like  hind  legs  are  stretched  outward 
and  forward,  ready  for  action.  When  disturbed  they  dart 
away  toward  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  carrying  a  supply  of 
air  beneath  their  wings.  Occasionally  these  insects  will 
float  on  the  surface  of  the  water  with  their  backs  uppermost ; 
and,  like  the  water-boatmen,  they  can  leap  into  the  air  from 
the  water  and  take  flight. 

The  Back-swimmers  feed  upon  insects  and  other  small 

-^  animals.     In  collecting  them  care  must  be 

*"****)<sifcc^**  taken  or  they  will  inflict  painful  stings  with 

/|1[  their  sharp  and  powerful  beaks. 

The  greater  number  of  our  common  spe- 

FIG.  149  — Notonecta 

unduiata.  cjes  of  this  family  belong  to  the  genus  Noto- 
necta (No-to-nec'ta)  (Fig.  149). 

Family  NEPID^E  (Nep'i-dse). 
The  Water-scorpions. 

The  Water-scorpions  have  two  long  bristles  on  the  end 
of  the  body,  which  are  grooved  on  the  inner  side.  By  put- 
ting these  bristles  together  a  long  tube  is  formed,  which  the 
insects  can  project  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  thus  ob- 
tain air  for  breathing,  while  resting  on  the  bottom  of  the 


HEM1PTERA.  1^1 

pond,  stilted  on  their  long  legs,  or  clinging  head  downward 
to  the  stems  of  plants. 

The  most  common  members  of  this  family  belong  to  the 
genus  Ranatra  (Ran'a-tra)  (Fig.  1 50).  These  are  long,  slender 
bugs  with  long,  slender  legs.  The 
only  other  representative  of  the  fam- 
ily found  in  the  United  States  is  Nepa 
apiculata  (Ne'pa  a-pic-u  la'ta).  In 
this  species  the  body  is  oval,  flat, 
and  thin,  and  measures  about  two 
thirds  of  an  inch  in  length,  not  includ- 
ing the  breathing-tube,  which  is  a 
little  more  than  one  fourth  of  an  inch 
long.  (See  Fig.  214,  p.  174.) 

The  Water-scorpions  live  among 
rubbish    or  on   the    stems  of   water- 
plants,  in  ponds  and  in  the  quiet  parts 
of  our  streams.      They  are  carnivo- 
rous, and  have  the  first  pair  of  legs 
fitted  for  seizing  prey.    In  these  legs 
the  coxa  is  very  long,  and  the  femur 
is  furnished  with  a  groove  into  which       FlG-  ls°-~ 
the  tibia  and  tarsus  fit  like  the  blade  of  a  pocket-knife  into 
the  handle. 

Owing  to  the  linear  form  of  the  body  of  Ranatra,  and  to 
the  dirt  with  which  it  is  usually  covered,  it  is  quite  difficult 
to  detect  the  presence  of  this  insect  among  the  rubbish 
where  it  is  found.  Doubtless  this  resemblance  to  a  dirty 
stick  aids  it  greatly  in  the  capture  of  insects,  small  fish,  and 
other  unwary  animals  upon  which  it  preys. 

Family  BELOSTOMID^E  (Bel-os-tom'i-dae). 
The  Giant  Water-bugs. 

We  have  named  these  insects  the  Giant  Water-bugs  as 
the  family  includes  the  largest  Heteroptara  now  in  existence. 


132 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Figure  151  represents  a  common 
form,  natural  size.  Like  other 
water-bugs,  these  insects  fly  readily 
from  pond  to  pond,  and  they  are 
frequently  attracted  to  lights. 
This  is  especially  the  case  where 
electric  lights  are  used,  into  which 
they  sometimes  fly  and  are  killed 
by  hundreds.  On  this  account 
they  are  known  in  many  parts  of 
the  country  as  "  Electric-light 
Bugs  ;  "  and  in  some  sections  the 
absurd  idea  prevails  that  they  have 
appeared  only  recently,  as  if  they 
were  in  some  way  a  product  of  the 

FIG.  151.— Belostoma  americanum.         electric  light. 

Figure  151  represents  Belostoma  americanum  (Be-los'to- 
ma  a-mer-i-ca'num).  In  Belostoma  the  front  femora  are 
grooved  for  the  reception  of  the  tibiae,  as  in  the  preceding 
family.  Another  common  representative  of  the  family  is 
Benacus  griseus  (Be-na'cus  gris'e-us).  This  resembles  Belos- 
toma americanum  very  closely,  but  can  be  distinguished  from 
it  by  the  absence  of  the  femoral  groove. 

There  are  other  species  of  the  family  which  are  smaller 
and  belong  to  the  genus  Zaitha  (Za'i-tha).  Figure  152  rep- 
resents one  of  these,  natural  size. 

In  thS  far  West  there  is  a  common  spe- 
cies which*  is  an  inch  and  a  half  long  and 
about  half  as  broad  ;  this  is  Serphus  dilatatus 
(Ser'phus  dil-a-ta'tus).  These  insects  are 
known  to  California  children  as  "  Toe-biters," 
owing  to  the  great  interest  they  are  sup- 
posed to  take  in  the  feet  of  waders  and 
swimmers. 

The  Giant  Water-bugs  are  rapacious 
creatures,  feeding  on  other  insects  and  small  fish.  With 


HEMIPTERA.  133 

many  of  them  the  female  fastens  her  eggs  on  the  top  of  her 
own  back  with  a  thin  layer  of  waterproof  glue  which 'she 
secretes  for  this  purpose. 


Family  NAUCORID.E  (Nau-cor'i-dae). 
The  Creeping  Water-bugs. 

This  is  a  small  family  containing  water-bugs  of  a  moder- 
ate size,  in  which  the  front  legs  are  fitted  for  grasping  and 
the  middle  and  hind  legs  for  walking.  They  are  flat-bodied, 
chiefly  oval  insects,  and  without  appendages  at  the  hind  end 
of  the  body. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  predaceous  ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  Professor  Uhler,  they  are  fond  of  reedy  and  grassy, 
quiet  waters,  where  they  creep  about  like  the  Predaceous 
Diving-beetles,  creeping  and  half  swimming  around  and  be- 
tween the  leaves  and  sprays  of  the  submerged  plants,  and 
suddenly  seizing  any  unlucky  water-boatman  or  other  insect 
that  happens  to  be  within  reach. 

Figure  153  represents  Pclocoris  femorata  (Pe-loc'o-ris 
fem-o-ra'ta),  the  only  species  found  in  the  States  on 
the  Atlantic  coast.  Several  other  species  are  found 
in  the  Western  States.  These  belong  to  the  genus 
Ambryms  (Am-bry'sus),  which  differs  from  Pelocoris  Prttetru. 
in  having  the  front  margin  of  the  prothorax  very  deeply 
sinuate. 


Family  GALGULID^;  (Gal-gu'li-dae). 
The  Toad-shaped  Bugs. 

There  is  sometimes  found  on  the  muddy  margins  of 
streams  or  in  marshes,  where  the  soil  is  moist,  a  curious  bug, 
which  on  account  of  its  short  and  broad  body  and  projecting 
eyes  reminds  one  of  a  toad  ;  this  is  Galgulus  oculatus  (Gal'gu- 


134  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

lus  oc-u-la'tus)  (Fig.  154),  the  most  common  member  of  this 

*•  x        family.    Another  species,  Mononyx  stygicus  (Mon'o- 

JHL      nyx  styg'i-cus),  closely  resembles  this  one  in  form, 

r^Jr     but   can  be   distinguished  by  the  fact  that  it  has 

>    5        only  a  single  claw  on  each  front  tarsus.     A  third 

Fl<£j/I5/«r  mernber  °f  tne  family  is  Pelogonus  americanus  (Pe- 
ocuiatus.  log'o-nus  a-mer-i-ca'nus)  ;  this  is  a  smaller  insect, 

with  a  more   oblong   body,   and   of  a  velvety-black  color. 

These  three  are  all  of  the  species  of  this  family  that  have 

been  found  in  the  United  States.     They  all  are  predaceous. 

Some  members  of  this  family  are  known  to  make  burrows 

for  themselves,  and   to  live  for  a  part  of  the  time  beneath 

the  ground. 

Family  SALDID^;  (Sal'di-dae).    ^~--t- 
The  Short-bugs. 

These  are  certain  small  bugs,  of  dark  colors  with  white 
or  yellow  markings,  and  with  long  antennas,  which  abound 
in  the  vicinity  of  streams  and  lakes,  and  upon  damp  soils, 
especially  of  marshes  near  our  coasts.  The  shape  of  these 
Shore-bugs  is  shown  by  Figure  155  ;  they  belong  to 
the  genus  Salda,  the  only  genus  representing  this 
family  in  the  United  States,  although  many  species 
occur  here.  FlG  I55  _ 

Some  of    the  Shore-bugs   dig  burrows,  and   live     SaUa- 
for  a  part  of  the   time    beneath  the   ground.      They  take 
flight  quickly  when  disturbed,  but  alight  after  flying  a  short 
distance. 

Family  VELTID^E  (Ve-li'i-dae).    • 
The  Broad-shouldered  Water-striders. 

There  are  many  bugs  that  run  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water.  The  greater  number  of  them  belong  to  the  next  fam- 
ily; but  there  are  several  genera  which  represent  a  family 
distinct  from  the  true  Water-striders,  and  which  can  be  easily 
distinguished  from  them  by  the  fact  that  the  body  is  broad- 


HEMIPTERA.  135 

est  across  the  prothorax.  These  Broad-shouldered  Water- 
striders  constitute  the  family  Veliidce.  They  pass  the  greater 
part  of  their  lives  upon  the  surface  of  the  water,  often  con. 
gregating  in  schools  containing  hundreds  of  individuals  ;  but 
they  usually  remain  near  the  banks  of  the  stream  or  pond, 
and  sometimes  they  leave  the  water,  mov- 
ing on  the  land  with  great  freedom.  Like 
the  members  of  the  allied  families,  they  are 
predaceous.  Figure  156  represents  one  of  I 
these  insects  somewhat  enlarged. 

FIG.    156. — Rhagoveiia. 
collar  is. 

Family  HYDROBATID^E  (Hyd-ro-bat'i-dae). 
The  Water-striders. 

On  the  quiet  pools  of  a  running  stream  or  the  calm 
waters  of  a  protected  pond  may  be  found  swarms  of  slender 
long-legged  insects  that  seem  to  find  the  water  surface  a 
pavement  well  suited  for  their  airy  feet.  If  your  approach 
is  stealthy  you  may  see  them  resting  motionless  as  if  ab- 
sorbed in  gazing  at  their  own  reflections  in  the  mirror  below 
them  ;  but  disturb  them,  and  so  swiftly  do  they  move 
that  they  seem  but  darting  lines  as  they  circle  around  and 
around  each  other  in  a  mystic  dance.  If  you  watch  them 
closely  you  may  see  one  leap  into  the  air  after  some  approach- 
ing insect. 

These  are  the  true  Water-striders.    In  some  of  them  the 

body  is  long  and  narrow,  as 
shown  in  Figure  157;  in 
others  it  is  oval  ;  but  in  all 
it  is  widest  back  of  the  pro- 
thorax,  thus  differing  from 
the  form  seen  in  the  pre- 
ceding family. 

In  the  winter  they  stow 
conform,.          themselves  away  under  the 
banks  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  do  not  come  to 


136 


THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


1 —  — l 


the  surface  until  lured  there  by  the  warm  weather  of  spring, 
They  then  lay  their  eggs,  gluing  them  fast  to  water-plants. 

There  are  members  of  this  family  that  live  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ocean,  hundreds  of  miles  from  land. 

Family  LIMNOBATID^E  (Lim-no-bat'i-dae). 

The  Marsh-treaders. 

Only  a  single  species  of  this  family,  the  Marsh-treader, 
Limnobates  lincata  (Lim-nob'a-tes   lin-e-a'ta),  is  found  in  the 
United  States.     This  is  represented  greatly 
/      \  enlarged  by  Figure  158.    Although  not  an 

\     /  uncommon  species,  it  is  rarely  seen  on  ac- 

count of  its  small  size  and  quiet  habits.    It 
can  be   recognized  by  its  linear  form  and 
the  great  length  of  its  head,  which  is  longer 
than  the  thorax.     It  crawls  about  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  or  mud,  or  climbs  upon 
^v  s    1    water-plants  and  sticks  projecting  from  the 
I          water;  it  seems  to  prefer  stagnant  ponds 
/  or  marshes.     We  do  not  know  upon  what 

S          it  feeds. 

FIG.  158. — Limnobates 

Family  EMESID^:  (E-mes'i-dae).  < 

The  Thread-legged  Bugs. 

This  family  includes  a  small  number  of  insects  in  which 
the  body  is  very  slender  and  the  middle  and  hind  legs  are 
thread-like;  but  the  fore 
legs  are  fitted  for  grasping, 
resembling  much  those  of 
the  Mantes.  Our  most 
common  species  is  the 
Long-legged  Emesa,  Eme- 
sa  longipes  (Em'e-sa  lon'- 
gi-pes),  which  is  repre- 
sented by  Figure  1 59.  This  FIG.  159.-^ 
is  found  upon  trees,  or  sometimes  swinging  by  its  long  legs 
from  the  roofs  of  sheds  or  barns.  It  is  predaceous. 


HEMIPTERA.  137 

Family  REDUVIID^E  (Red-u-vi'i-dae). 
The  Assassin-bugs. 

There  are  many  bugs  which  destroy  their  fellows,  but 
the  members  of  this  family  are  so  pre-eminently  predaceous 
that  we  call  them  the  Assassin-bugs.  Although  they  usually 
live  on  the  blood  of  insects,  in  some  cases  they  attack  the 
higher  animals,  and  occasionally  even  man  suffers  from 
them.  Care  should  be  used  in  collecting  them,  as  some 
are  apt  to  inflict  painful  stings  with  their  beaks.  In  this 
family  the  beak  is  only  three-jointed,  and  when  not  in  use 
the  tip  rests  in  a  groove  between  the  fore  legs.  The  family  is 
a  very  large  one,  containing  more  than  a  hundred  American 
species. 

In  the  Atlantic  States  one  sometimes  finds,  in  basements 
and  in  rooms  but  little  used,  a  bug  which  presents  a  very 
curious  appearance  from  having  its  body  and  legs  completely 
covered  with  dust,  so  that  it  looks  like  a  living  mass  of  lint 
as  it  moves  around.  This  is  the  Masked  Bed-bug  Hunter, 
Opsiccetus  personatus  (Op-si-cce'tus  per-so-na'tus).  This 
species  infests  houses  for  the  sake  of  preying 
upon  bed-bugs ;  it  also  feeds  upon  flies  and  other 
insects.  Its  mask  is  worn  only  during  youth,  and 
consists  of  particles  of  dust  and  fibres  which  ad- 
here to  a  sticky  substance  with  which  the  body, 
legs,  and  antennae  are  covered.  The  adult  is 
black  or  very  dark  brown,  and  is  represented  by 
Figure  160. 

A  closely  allied  species,  which  is  black  marked 
with  red,  insinuates  itself  into  beds  for  a  less  com- 
mendable purpose  than  that  of  its  ally,  for  it  sucks  human 
blood  at  first  hand.  This  insect  occurs  in  the  Southern  and 
Western  States  ;  it  is  the  Big  Bed-bug,  Conor/iinus  sanguisu- 
gus  (Co-nor'hi-nus  san-gui-su'gus).  Nearly  all  the  members 
of  this  family,  however,  live  upon  trees  and  other  plants,  and 
prey  upon  insects. 


138  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Family  NABID.E  (Nab'i-dae). 
The  Damsel-bugs. 

We  have  called  the  members  of  this  family  the  Damsel- 
bugs  for  want  of  a  better  name,  "  little  girl  "  being  the  mean- 
ing of  Coriscus,  the  scientific  name  of  our  most  common 
genus. 

Figure  161  represents  a  wing-cover  of  a  member  of  this 
family,    and    will    illustrate    the   venation    char- 
acteristic  of    it,   although    in   some    species    the 
wings   are    usually  rudimentary.     We   have   two 
F.G.  161.      common   members    of    this   family,    one    blonde 
and  the  other  black. 

The  Blonde  Damsel-bug,  Coriscus  ferus(Co-ris'cus  fe'rus), 
is  about  one-third  inch  in  length,  and  pale  yellow,  with  nu- 
merous minute  brown  dots.  This  species  is  widely  distrib- 
uted, both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  It 
secretes  itself  in  flowers  or  among  the  foliage  of 
various  herbaceous  plants,  and  captures  small  in- 
sects, upon  which  it  feeds.  There  are  several 
other  species  that  closely  resemble  this  one. 

The  Black  Damsel-bug,  Coriscus  subcoleoptratus    FIG. 
(sub-co-le-op-tra'tus)  (Fig.  162),  is  very  common  in     s 
the  Northern  States.     It  is  of  a  shining  jet-black 
color,  with  the  edge  of  the  abdomen  and  the  legs  yellowish. 
Usually  this  species  has  very  short,  rudimentary  wings,  but 
a  form  with  long  wings  is  sometimes  found. 

Family  PHYMATID^E  (Phy-mat'i-dae). 
The  Ambush-bugs. 

The  most  common  member  of  this  family  is  Phytnata 
wolffii  (Phy-ma'ta  wolf  i-i)  (Fig.  163).  It  is  a  greenish 
insect,  with  a  black  band  across  the  broadly  expanded 
abdomen.  It  conceals  itself  in  flowers,  and  captures 
FIG.  i63.  the  insects  which  come  to  sip  nectar.  It  is  espe- 
•woiffii.  cially  abundant  among  the  flowers  of  the  golden-rod. 


HEMIPTERA. 


139 


It  has  wonderfully  strong,  grasping  front  legs,  and  can  over- 
come insects  much  larger  than  itself. 

Family  ARADID.E  (A-rad'i-dae).   .***-•'" 
The  Flat-bugs. 

These  are  the  flattest  of  all  bugs,  the  body  appearing  as 
if  it  had  been  stepped  upon.  They  live  in  the  cracks 
or  under  the  bark  of  decaying  trees.  The  form  of 
the  body  is  especially  adapted  for  gliding  about  in 
these  cramped  situations.  They  are  usually  of  a 
dull -brown  color,  but  are  sometimes  varied  with 
reddish  or  pale  markings.  Figure  164  represents 
a  common  species. 

Family  TINGITID.E  (Tin-git'i-dae). 
The  Lace-bugs. 

Dainty  as  fairy  brides  are  these  tiny,  lace-draped  insects. 
One  glance  at  the  fine  white  meshes  that  cover  the  wings 
and  spined  thorax  is  sufficient  to  distinguish  them  from 
all  other  insects,  for  these  are  the  only  ones  that  are  clothed 
from  head  to  foot  in  fine  white  Brussels  net.  They  live  upon 


FIG.  165.— Coryth ucn  arcu- 
ata.  (From  the  Author's 
Report  for  1879.) 


FIG.  166.—  Egtfs  and 
nymph  of  Corythuca. 
arcuata.  (From  the 
Author's  Report  for 
1879- 


the  juices  of  plants,  and  in  the  case  of  the  Hawthorn  Tingis 
(Fig.4i65)  sometimes  prove  too  numerous  for  the  health  of 
their  plant  host. 


140  THE   STUDY   OF  INSECTS, 

They  are  very  small  insects,  rarely  measuring  more  than 
one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length.  Their  eggs  are  fastened  to 
leaves,  and  covered  by  a  brown,  sticky  substance ;  they 
appear  more  like  fungi  than  like  the  eggs  of  other  insects 
(Fig.  166). 

Family  ACANTHIID^:  (Ac-an-thi'i-dae). 

The  Bed-bug  and  the  Flower-bugs. 

The  Bed-bug,  Acanthia  lectularia  (A-can'thi-a  lec-tu-la'- 
ri-a),  is  a  well-known  pest  over  the  greater  part 
of    the  world.     It  is  reddish   brown  in  color, 
and  measures  when  full-grown  from  one-sixth 
to  one-fifth  inch  in  length.     The  body  is  ovate 
tMaitctutoH*.  in  outline  and   is  very  flat  (Fig.    167).      It  is 
wingless,  or  has  very  short  and  rudimentary  wing-covers. 

The  Bed-bug  is  a  nocturnal  insect,  hiding  by  day  in  the 
cracks  of  furniture  and  beneath  various  objects.  Bed-bugs 
are  easily  destroyed  by  wetting  the  cracks  in  which  they 
hide  with  corrosive  sublimate  dissolved  in  alcohol.  This  is 
sold  by  druggists  under  the  name  of  bed-bug  poison.  Py- 
rethrum  powder  blown  into  the  cracks  will  destroy  these 
insects,  and,  unlike  corrosive  sublimate,  is  not  poisonous  to 
man.  A  closely  allied  species,  A.  hirundinis  (hir-un-di'nis) 
occurs  in  nests  of  the  barn-swallow. 

There  are  certain  small  bugs  that  are  closely  allied  to  the 
Bed-bug,  but  which  have  wing-covers  that  are  almost  always 
fully  developed.       These   are    the   Flower-bugs. 
They  are  found  in  a  great  variety  of  situations,   ^g^ 
often  upon  trees  and  flowers,  sometimes  under  ^1P 
bark  or  rubbish.    They  are  predaceous.     Figure 
168  represents  a  wing-cover  of  one  of  these  insects. 

Family  CAPSIZE  (Cap'si-dae). 

The  Leaf-bugs. 

This  is  the  largest  family  of  the  Heteroptera;  the 
members  of  it  live  chiefly  upon  the  leaves  of  plants, 


HEMIPTERA.  14! 

from  which  they  derive  their  nourishment,  but 

some  of  them  are  predaceous.     The  most  avail-  (fC^—-^ 

able  character  for  distinguishing  these  insects  is 

the  structure  of  the  wing-covers ;  at  the  base  of      FlG-  l6g- 

the  membrane  there  are  one  or  two  cells,   otherwise  the 

membrane  is  without  veins  (Fig.  169). 

More  than  two  hundred  species  belonging  to  this  fam- 
ily are  known  to  occur  in  the   United  States. 
Figure  170  represents  the  Four-lined  Leaf-bug, 
Pcecilocapsus  lineatus  (Pce-cil-o-cap'sus  lin-e-a'tus), 
a   yellow   bug,    with    its   prothorax   and   wing- 
FIG.  T7oZ/v«v-  covers  marked  with  black,  which  is  abundant 
£«/»«*  '**"•-  jn    early   summer    on    the    leaves    of   currant- 
bushes  and  of  sage. 

Family  PYRRHOCORID,E  (Pyr-rho-cor'i-dae).     ^^ 

The  Red-bug  Family. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  rather  stout  and  heavily 
formed  bugs,  and  are  generally  black  or  brown, 
marked  with  red.     Some  members  of  the  next 
family  resemble  these  in  markings,  but  the  two 
families  can  be  distinguished  by  the  venation  of      FlG<  I71< 
the  membrane  of  the  wing-covers.     In  this  family  there  are 
two  large  cells  at  the  base  of  the  membrane,  and  from  these 
arise  branching  veins  (Fig.  171). 

The  most  important  species  of  this  family  is  the  Red-bug, 
or  Cotton-stainer,  Dysdercus  suturellus  (Dys-der'cus  su-tu- 
rel'lus)  (Fig.  17^2).    The  adult  is  of  a  reddish  color ;  the  wing- 
covers  are  pale  brown,  with  pale-yellow  stripes.     The  young 
are  bright  red,  with  black  legs.     They  do  much 
damage  by  piercing  the  stems  and  bolls  of  the 
cotton-plant  and  sucking  the  juices,  but  do  much 
more  damage  by  staining  the  cotton  in  the  open- 
ing bolls.  They  also  puncture  the  rind  of  oranges 
in  Florida,  so  that  decay  soon  sets  in,  and  the 
FIG.  172.— z^j-fruit  drops.     These  insects  can  be  trapped  by 

dercut     tutu-.  * 

reiiut.         laying  chips  of   sugar-cane  around   the  cotton- 


142  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

fields.  In  orange-groves  heaps  of  cotton-seed  as  well  as 
pieces  of  sugar-cane  will  be  found  useful ;  the  insects  will 
collect  in  these  places  and  can  be  scalded  to  death. 

Family  LYG/EID^:  (Ly-gae'i-dae). 
The  Chinch-bug  Family. 

This,  too,   is  a   large    family,  about    one   hundred    and 
fifty    species    being    known    to    occur    in    the 
\^^^^     United    States.      Here  the   membrane    of   the 
wing-covers  is  furnished  with  four  or  five  simple 
veins,  which  arise  from  the  base  of  the  mem- 
brane ;  sometimes  the  two  inner  veins  are  joined  to  a  cell 
near  the  base  (Fig.  173). 

This  family  contains  the  Chinch-bug,  Blissus  leucopterus 
(Blis'sus  leu-cop'te-rus),  the  most  destructive  member  of  the 
Heteroptera  occurring  in  the  United  States. 
Although  quite  widely  distributed,  its  injuries 
have  attracted  most  attention  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  where  it  has  destroyed  many 
million  dollars'  worth  of  grain.  It  is  a  small  Fl 
bug,  measuring  less  than  one  sixth  of  an  inch  ie*copterus. 
in  length.  In  Figure  174  it  is  represented  slightly  enlarged 
and  greatly  enlarged.  It  is  blackish  in  color,  with  snowy- 
white  wing -covers,  each  marked  with  a  dark  spot  and 
Y-shaped  line,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  species  is  di- 
morphic, there  being  a  short-winged  form. 

There  are  two  generations  of  the  Chinch-bug  each  year ; 
they  winter  as  full-grown  insects  and  hide  under  rubbish. 
In  the  early  spring  they  come  forth  and  lay  their  eggs  in 
fields  of  grain  upon  the  roots  or  stems  beneath  the  ground. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  two  weeks.  The  nymphs  are  red, 
and  feed  at  first  upon  roots;  afterwards  they  attack  the 
stalks  of  the  plants  they  infest.  In  about  fifty  days  they 
get  their  growth.  About  this  time  the  whole  brood  starts 
out  to  find  new  pastures,  and  they  all  march  on  foot  in  one 
direction,  like  an  army.  Although  they  are  tiny  insects  they 


HEM1PTERA.  143 

number  millions,  and  so  attract  much  attention.  As  soon  as 
they  find  a  new  field  of  grain  they  lay  their  eggs  there  for 
another  brood. 

No  satisfactory  means  of  combating  this  insect  was 
known  until  recently.  But  it  has  now  been  ascertained  that 
it  is  destroyed  by  a  contagious  disease  which  can  be  spread 
artificially.  Diseased  bugs  are  sent  to  places  where  the  dis. 
ease  does  not  exist ;  and  thus  the  contagion  is  spread. 
Extensive  experiments  are  being  carried  on  in  Kansas  at  the 
time  of  this  writing,  and  the  results  so  far  seem  very  encour- 
aging. 

Family  BERYTiDyE  (Be-ryt'i-dae).  v>v 

The  Stilt-bugs. 

This  family  includes  a  small  number  of  land  bugs,  in  which 
the  body,  legs,  and  antennae  are  very  slender,  resembling 
somewhat   the  thread-legged  bugs 
(Emesidae). 

The  stilt  bugs  have  the  tip  of 
the  femora,  the  tip  of  the  first  joint 
/\\^/\  of  the  antennae,  and  the  last  joint 

yj\X/V         °f  the  antennae  somewhat  enlarged 
fTT^       T  (Fig.  175).     Only  two  species  have 
J/MX  V    I   been  found  in   the   United  States. 
These  are  Neides  muticus  (Ne'i-des 
mu'ti-cus),  which  has  a  prominent 
spine  on  the  vertex  of  the  head  ; 
and  Jalysns  spinosus  (Jal'y-sus  spi- 
no'sus),  which,  although  spined  in 
other  places,  lacks  the  spine  on  the  vertex. 

These  are  sluggish  insects,  found  in  the  undergrowth  of 
woods  and  in  meadows  and  pastures. 

Family  COREID^:  (Co-re'i-dae). 

The  Squash-bug  Family. 

This  family  is  also  a  very  extensive  one,  including  many 
species.  The  best  character  for  distinguishing  the  members 


144  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

of  it  is  the  nature  of  the  venation  of  the  membrane  of  the 
wing-covers.     This   part  is  furnished  with  many 
veins,  most  of  which  spring  from  a  cross-vein  near 
Fu,I76.       its  base  (Fig.  176). 

The  Squash-bug,  Anasa  tristis  (An'a-sa  tris'- 
tis),  is  a  good  example  of  this  great  family.  These  when  full- 
grown  are  brownish-black  bugs,  with  some  yellow  spots 
along  the  edges  of  the  abdomen  (Fig.  177), 
and  are  dirty  yellow  on  the  under  side.  This 
bug  winters  in  the  adult  state,  and  takes  the 
first  opportunity  in  the  spring  to  lay  its  eggs 
on  the  earliest  sprouts  of  squash  and  pumpkin 
vines.  As  soon  as  they  hatch,  the  young  bugs 
attack  the  vines  and  are  apt  to  destroy  them  ^ 

*  FIG.     177. — Anasa 

entirely.     The  remedy  is  to  protect  the  young         tristis. 
plants  by  frames  covered  with  netting. 

Family  PENTATOMID^:  (Pen-ta-tom'i-dae). 
The  Stink-brig  Family. 

This  is  a  family  the  taste  and  odor  of  which  most  of  us 
know  to  our  sorrow.  We  learn  the  flavor  in  one  experience, 
and  conclude  that  once  is  enough  for  a  lifetime.  To  those 
who  live  in  cities  it  may  always  remain  a  mystery  why  one 
berry  looking  just  like  another  should  taste  and  smell  so 
differently ;  but  all  barefooted  boys  and  sun-bonneted  girls 
from  the  country  who  have  picked  the  wild  strawberries  on 
the  hillsides  or  scratched  their  hands  and  faces  in  raspberry 
patches  know  well  the  angular  green  or  brown  bugs  that 
leave  a  loathsome  trail  behind  them  ;  and  they  will  tell  you, 
too,  that  the  bugs  themselves  are  worse  than  their  trail,  for 
it  is  a  lucky  youngster  that  has  not  taken  one  of  these  insects 
into  his  mouth  by  mistake  with  a  handful  of  berries. 

It  should  not  be  concluded,  however,  that  only  members 
of  this  family  possess  this  disagreeable  odor ;  for  most  of  the 
Heteroptera  protect  themselves  by  rendering  their  bodies 
unpalatable  in  this  way.  Doubtless  birds  soon  learn  this 


m 


HEMIPTERA.  1 45 

fact  and  leave  such  bugs  alone.  But  it  is  to  members  of 
this  family  that  the  expressive  name  given  above  is  com- 
monly applied. 

This  nauseous  odor  is  caused  by  a  fluid  which  is  excreted 
through  two  openings,  one  on  each  side  of  the  lower  side  of 
the  body  near  the  middle  coxae. 

In   this  family  the   antennae  are   five-jointed  ;    the  scu- 
tellum,  although  large,  is  less  than  half  as  long  as  the  abdo. 
men  ;  and  the  front  legs  are  not  fitted  for  digging 
(Fig.  178). 

Some  species  of  this  family  feed  upon  other 
insects,  and  so  are  very  helpful  to  the  farmer,  one 
species  especially  being  a  gallant  fighter  against 
the  potato-beetle.  Other  species  feed  entirely 
upon  vegetables,  while  others  live  upon  both  F'|- in^7^~ A 
vegetable  and  animal  matter. 

The  Harlequin  Cabbage-bug  or  Calico-back,  Murgantia 
kistronica  (Mur-gan'ti-a  his-tron'i-ca),  is  very  destructive  to 
cabbages,  radishes,  and  turnips  in  the  Southern  States  and 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  black  with  bands,  stripes,  and 
margins  of  red  or  orange  or  yellow.  The  full-grown  bugs 
live  through  the  winter,  and  in  the  early  spring  each  female 
lays  on  the  under  surface  of  the  young  leaves  about  twelve 
eggs  in  two  parallel  rows.  The  young  bugs  are  pale  green, 
with  black  spots.  They  mature  in  a  few  days,  so  there  are 
many  generations  in  one  season.  It  is  difficult  to  find  a 
remedy  for  this  pest,  but  much  can  be  done  by  placing 
cabbage  and  turnip  leaves  on  the  ground  in  early  spring, 
and  thus  trapping  them  when  they  first  come  out  of  their 
winter  quarters. 

Family  CVDNID^:  (Cyd'ni-dae). 
The  Bur  rower-bugs. 

These  are  oval,  rounded,  or  elliptical  bugs,  with  five- 
jointed  antennae ;  with  the  scutellum  large,  but  less  than 


146  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

half  as  long  as  the  abdomen  ;  and  with  the  front  legs  more 
or  less  flattened,  fitted  for  digging  (Fig.  179). 

The   species   are   generally  black  or  very  dark 
brown.     They  are  found  burrowing  in  sandy  places, 
FIG  i79V-  or  on  tne  surlace  of  tne  ground  beneath  sticks  and 
nu?t"mi-  st°nes>  or  at  tne  roots  of  grass  and  other  herbage. 
rabiiis.    The  family  is  not  a  large  one.     The  members  of  it 
probably  feed  upon  plants  ;  but  it  is  desirable  that  further 
observation  be  made  upon  the  habits  of  this  family. 

Family  CORIMEUENID.E  (Cor-i-me-laen'i-dae).  ^- 
The  Negro-bugs. 

These   bugs   are   mostly   black,    and   are   beetle-like   in 
appearance ;  some  have  a  bluish  or  greenish  tinge,  and  all 
are  very  convex.     The  scutellum  is  very  convex,  and,  as  in 
the  following  family,  covers  nearly  the  whole  of  the  abdo- 
men.    But  in  this  family  there  is  at  the  base  of 
JfRU        the  scutellum  on  each  side  a  short  furrow  into 
'  "/JB  jV     whicn  the  edge  °f  the  wing-cover  fits  when  at 
C^*\       rest.     All  of  our  species   belong  to  the  genus 
Corimelcena  (Cor-i-me-lae'na). 

FIG.  1 80.— Cori- 

meia-na  at™.  These  insects  infest  various  plants,  and  often 
injure  raspberries  and  other  fruit  by  imparting  a  disagreeable 
odor  to  them.  Fig.  180  represents  one  of  these  bugs,  some- 
what enlarged. 

Family  SCUTELLERIDJE  (Scu-tel-ler'i-dae).  % 
The  Shield-backed  Bugs. 

The  members  of  this  family  resemble  the 
negro-bugs     in    the   shape    and    size   of   the 
scutellum,  which  covers  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  abdomen  ;  but  the  sides  of  the  scutellum 
are  not  furnished  with  a  groove  for  receiving 
the  edge  of  the  wing-covers.     Fig.  181  repre-  FlG  ,8l_ Eurygas 
sents   one    of   these  insects  enlarged.     They      ter  alternatus- 
feed  upon  plants. 


i 


HEMIPTERA.  147 

Suborder  PARASITA  (Par-a-si'ta). 

The  Parasita  includes  certain  parasites  of  man  and  other 
mammals,  commonly  known  as  lice.  They  are  wingless, 
and  differ  from  other  Hemiptera  in  having  the  beak  fleshy 
and  not  jointed.  This  suborder  is  represented  in  the  United 
States  by  only  one  family,  the  PedicuHda. 

Family  PEDICULID.E  (Ped-i-cu'li-dae). 
The  Lice. 

This  family  comprises  the  true  lice,  which  differ  from  the 
bird-lice  of  the  order  Mallophaga  in  having  sucking  mouth- 
parts.  The  true  lice  live  on  the  skin  of  mammals,  and  suck 
their  blood. 

There  are  three  species  that  infest  man  :  one  living  on 
the  head,  among  the  hair  ;  and  the  other  two  on  the  body. 
Several  species  infest  our  domestic  animals.  The  more 


FIG.  ite.—Hamatopinus  FlG.  183.— #.  eurysttrnus. 

asini.    (From  Law.)  (From  Law.) 

common  of  these  are  the  louse  of  the  horse  (Fig.  182),  and 
the  louse  of  the  cow  (Fig.  183). 

Various  substances  are  used  for  destroying  lice  on  domes- 
tic animals :  among  them  are  a  strong  infusion  of  tobacco, 


148  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

an  ointment  made  of  one  part  sulphur  and  four  parts  lard, 
Scotch  snuff,  powdered  wood  ashes,  and  kerosene  emulsion. 
The  remedy  should  be  applied  thoroughly,  and  repeated 
several  times  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  days,  in  order  to 
destroy  the  young  which  may  hatch  after  the  first  application. 
The  stable  and  the  places  where  the  cattle  are  in  the  habit 
of  rubbing  should  also  be  whitewashed  or  sprayed  with 
kerosene,  or  strong  kerosene  emulsion. 

Suborder  HOMOPTERA  (Ho-mop'te-ra). 
Cicadas,  Leaf-]wppers,  Aphids,  Scale-bugs  and  of  hers. 

The  Homoptera  includes  insects  of  widely  diversified 
form,  but  which  agree,  however,  in  'having  the  wings  when 
present  of  the  same  thickness  throughout,  and  usually  slop- 
ing roof-like  at  the  sides  of  the  body  when  at  rest,  and  in 
having  the  beak  arise  from  the  hinder  part  of  the  lower  side 
of  the  head  (Fig.  140,  b}.  The  name  is  from  two  Greek 
words  :  homos,  same ;  and  pteron,  a  wing. 

This  suborder  includes  nine  families,  which  are  designated 
as  follows : 

The  Cicadas,  Family  ClCADlD^E  (p.  149). 

The  Lantern-fly  Family,  Family  FULGORID^E  (p.  151). 

The  Spittle  Insects,  Family  CERCOPIDJ3  (p.  152). 

The  Leaf-hoppers,  Family  JASSID^;  (p.  153). 

The  Tree-hoppers,  Family  MEMBRACID^E  (p.  154). 

The  Jumping  Plant-lice,  Family  PSYLLID^E  (p.  155). 

The  Plant-lice,  Family  APHIDID^E  (p.  156). 

The  Aleyrodes,  Family  ALEYRODID/E  (p.  163). 

The  Scale-bugs,  Family  COCCID^E  (p.  164). 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  HOMOPTERA. 

(For  advanced  students.} 
TABLE   FOR   DETERMINING   THE   FAMILIES   OF   THE   HOMOPTERA. 

A.   Beak  evidently  arising  from  the  head  ;  tarsi  three-jointed  ;  anten- 
nae minute,  bristle-like. 


HEM1PTERA.  149 

B.  With  three  ocelli,  and  the  males  with  musical  organs.  Usually 
large  insects,  with  all  the  wings  entirely  membranous,  p.  149. 

ClCADIDiE. 

BB.  Ocelli  only  two  in  number  or  wanting ;   males  without  musi- 
cal organs. 
C.  Antennae  inserted  on  the  sides  of  the  cheeks  beneath  the 

eyes.    p.  151 FULGORID;E. 

CC.  Antennae  inserted  in  front  of  and  between  the  eyes. 
D.   Prothorax  not  prolonged  above  the  abdomen. 
E.  Hind  tibiae  armed  with  one  or  two  stout  teeth,  and  the 
tip  crowned  with  short  stout  spines     p.  152.. .  CERCOPID/E. 
EE.  Hind  tibiae  having  a  row  of  spines  below  p.  153.  JASSID^E. 
DD.   Prothorax  prolonged   into   a   horn   or   point   above   the 

abdomen,     p.  154 MEMBRACID/E. 

A  A.  Beak  apparently  arising  from  between  the  front  legs,  or  absent; 
tarsi  one  or  two  jointed ;  antennae  usually  prominent  and  thread- 
like, sometimes  wanting. 

B.  Tarsi  usually  two-jointed  ;  wings  when  present  four  in  number. 
C.  Wings  transparent. 

D.  Hind  legs  fitted  for  leaping;  antennae  nine  or  ten  jointed. 

p.  155 PSYLLID^E. 

D.  Legs  long  and   slender,  not  fitted  for  leaping;    antennae 

three  to  seven  jointed,     p.  1 56 APHIDID/E. 

CC.  Wings  opaque,  whitish  ;   wings  and  body  covered  with  a 

whitish  powder,     p.  163 ALEYRODID/E. 

BB.  Tarsi  one-jointed  ;  adult  male  without  any  beak,  and  with 
only  two  wings;  female  wingless,  with  the  body  either  scale- 
like  or  gall-like  in  form,  or  grub-like  and  clothed  with  wax.  The 
waxy  covering  may  be  in  the  form  of  powder,  of  large  tufts  or 
plates,  of  a  continuous  layer,  or  of  a  thin  scale  beneath  which  the 
insect  lives,  p.  164 


Family  ClCADlD/E  (Ci-cacTi-dae). 
The  Cicadas  (Ci-ca'das). 

The  large  size  and  well-known  songs  of  the  more  common 
species  of  this  family  render  them  familiar  objects.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  refer  to  the  Periodical  Cicada  (or  the  seventeen- 
year  locust,  as  it  has  been  improperly  termed)  and  to  the 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Dog-day  Harvest-fly  (Fig.  184)  to  give  an  idea  of  the  more 
striking  characters  of  this  family.  We 
have  several  species  much  smaller  than 
either  of  these  ;  but  their  characteristic 
form  and  the  presence  of  three  ocelli 
are  sufficient  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  members  of  the  other  families. 

The  Periodical  Cicada,  Cicada  scp- 
tendedm  (Ci-ca'da  sep-ten'de-cim),  is 
very  generally  known  in  this  country, 
owing  to  the  great  numbers  in  which 
it  appears,  at  long  intervals  of  time. 
This  periodical  appearance  is  due  to 
the  long  time  required  for  the  nymphs 
to  obtain  their  growth — either  seven- 
teen or  thirteen  years — and  to  the  fact  that  all  the  members 
of  one  generation  appear  in  the  adult  state  at  about  the  same 
time.  The  adult  female  lays  her  eggs  in  slits  which  she 
makes  in  the  twigs  of  trees.  Small  fruit  is  sometimes  in- 
jured in  this  way.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  six  weeks. 
The  young  nymphs  finding  no  attraction  in  a  world  of  sun- 
shine and  of  flowers,  drop  to  the  ground  and  bury  them- 
selves in  the  earth,  thus  commencing  a  voluntary  seclusion 
which  lasts  for  years.  They  live  by  sucking  the  juices  from 
the  roots  of  trees.  In  May  of  the  seventeenth  year  after 
their  retirement  to  their  earthy  cloisters  they  crawl  up  to 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  like  renegade  monks ;  and,  leav- 
ing their  nymph-skins  clinging  to  the  tree-trunks,  like  cast- 
off  garments  of  penance,  they  come  forth,  broad-headed, 
broad-bodied,  clear-winged  creatures,  well  fitted  to  get  all 
the  experience  possible  out  of  a  world  whose  frivolities  they 
have  so  long  scorned.  But,  like  other  creatures,  they  find  a 
life  of  dissipation  very  exhausting,  and  after  a  few  weeks 
they  sing  their  last  song,  lay  their  eggs,  and  pass  away. 

In  the  South  these  insects  live  only  thirteen  years  under 


HEM1PTERA.  l$\ 

ground,  but  in  the  North  it  requires  seventeen  years  for  a 
nymph  to  reach  maturity. 

More  than  twenty  distinct  broods  of  this  species  have 
been  traced  out.  In  many  localities  several  broods  coexist ; 
this  explains  the  fact  that  in  such  places  these  insects  ap- 
pear several  times  during  a  single  period  of  seventeen  years. 

There  is  a  common  species  of  Cicada  known  as  the  Dog- 
day  Harvest-fly  or  Lyreman,  Cicada  tibicen  (Ci-ca'da  ti-bi'cen), 
Avhich  requires  only  two  years  for  its  development,  and  as 
there  are  two  broods  of  this  species  the  adults  appear  every 
year.  This  Cicada  (Fig.  184)  is  black  and  green  in  color, 
and  more  or  less  powdered  beneath.  And  its  song  is  the 
high,  sharp  trill  that  comes  to  us,  midsummer  noons,  from 
the  depths  of  trees  where  the  singer  is  hidden  amid  the 
foliage,  all  unconscious  that  its  shrill  note  has  for  centuries 
been  a  theme  for  poets. 

Family  FULGORID.E  (Ful-gor'i-dae). 
The  Lantern-fly  Family. 

This  family  is  remarkable  for  certain  exotic  forms  which 
it  contains.  Chief  among  these  is  the  great  Lantern-fly  of 
Brazil,  which  is  figured  in  many  popular  works  on  insects. 
Scarcely  less  strange  are  the  Candle-flies  of  China  and  the 
East  Indies.  The  popular  names  of  these  insects  refer  to 
the  fact  that  they  are  phosphorescent,  but  we  know  of  no 
native  species  that  possesses  this  peculiarity.  There  does 
not  seem  to  be  any  typical  form  of  the  body  characteristic 
of  this  family.  The  different  genera  differ  so  greatly,  that 
on  superficial  examination  they  appear  to  have  very  little  in 
common.  Some  even  resemble  butterflies  and  moths,  while 
others  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  neuropterous  genera. 

The  most  useful  character  for  recognizing  these  insects  is 
the  form  and  position  of  the  antennae.  These  are  bristle- 
shaped,  and  inserted  in  a  button-shaped  base  on  the  side  of 


152  THE    STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 

the  cheek  beneatli  the  eyes.  Although  the  Fulgoridae  are 
vegetable  feeders,  none  of  our  species  have  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  agriculturists.  There  are,  however,  certain  exotic 
species  which  do  great  injury  to  crops. 

The  two  accompanying  figures  will  serve  to  show  the 
wonderful  variations  in  form  of  these  insects ;  many  other 
types  exist.  Figure  185  represents  a  common  species  of  Sco- 
lops  (Sco'lops),  which  occurs  in  grassy  places.  In  this  genus 
the  head  is  greatly  prolonged,  as  with  the  exotic  Candle-flies. 


FIG.  \%$.—Scolops.  FIG.  \^.—Ortnenis  septen- 

trionalis. 

Figure  186  represents  Ormenis  septentrionalis  (Or'me-nis  sep- 
ten-tri-o-na'lis),  a  beautiful  pale-green  species  powdered  with 
white,  which  feeds  on  wild  grape-vines,  drawing  nourishment 
from  the  tender  shoots  and  mid-ribs  of  the  leaves  during  its 
young  stages. 

Family  CERCOPID^E  (Cer-cop'i-dae). 
The  Spittle  Insects  or  Frog-hoppers. 

During  the  summer  months  one  often  finds  upon  various 
shrubs  and  herbs  masses  of  white  froth.  In  the  midst  of 
each  of  these  masses  there  lives  a  young  insect,  a  member  of 
this  family.  In  some  cases  as  many  as  four  or  five  insects 
inhabit  the  same  mass  of  foam.  The  froth  is  supposed  to 
consist  of  sap,  which  the  insect  has  pumped  from  the  plant, 
by  means  of  its  beak,  and  passed  through  its  alimentary 
canal.  It  is  asserted  that  these  insects  undergo  all  their 
transformations  within  this  mass  ;  that  when  one  is  about  to 
molt  for  the  last  time,  a  clear  space  is  formed  about  its 
body ;  the  superficial  part  of  the  foam  dries,  so  as  to  form  a 
vaulted  roof  to  a  closed  chamber,  within  which  the  change 


HEMIPTERA.  153 

of  the  skin  is  made.  The  adult  insects  wander  about  on 
herbage  and  trees.  They  have  the  power  of  leaping  well. 
The  name  frog-hoppers  has  doubtless  grown  out  of  the  fact 
that  formerly  the  froth  was  called  "frog-spittle,"  and  was 
supposed  to  have  been  voided  by  tree-frogs  from  their 
mouths.  The  name  is  not,  however,  inappropriate,  for  the 
broad  and  depressed  form  of  our  more  common  species  is 
something  like  that  of  a  frog. 

In  this  family  the  antennae  are  inserted  in  front  of  and 
between  the  eyes  ;  the  prothorax  is  not  prolonged  back  of  the 
abdomen  (as  in  the  Membracidae)  ;  and  the  tibiae 
are  armed  with  one  or  two  stout  teeth,  and  the 
tip  crowned  with  short,  stout  spines,  as  shown  in 
Figure  187.  This  figure  represents  the  most  com- 
mon spittle  insect  of  the  Eastern  United  States,  l^Ll 
ApJirophora  guadrangu/aris  (A-phroph'o-ra.  quad- 
ran-gu-la'ris),  and  one  of  its  tibiae  greatly  enlarged. 


*\ 


Family 

The  Leaf-hoppers. 

The  most  abundant  members  of  the  Homoptera,  except 
perhaps  the  Aphids,  are  the  leaf-hoppers.  Large  numbers 
of  them  can  be  easily  collected  by  sweeping  grass,  herbage, 
or  the  foliage  of  shrubs. 

The  leaf-hoppers  are  more  slender  than  the  spittle  insects, 
and  are  also  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the 
hind  tibiae,  whicli  are  nearly  or  quite  as  long  as 
^le  abdomen,  curved,  and  armed  with  a  row  of 
spines  on  each  margin  (Fig.  188). 
FIG.  m.-proco-  Among  the  leaf-hoppers  that  have  attracted 
attention  on  account  of  their  injuries  to  vegeta- 
tion are  the  following:  The  destructive  Leaf-hopper,  Cicaditla 
cxitiosa  (Ci-cad'u-la  ex-it-i-o'sa),  which  is  represented  greatly 
enlarged  by  Figure  189,  sometimes  infests  winter  wheat 
to  a  serious  extent  in  the  Southern  States.  The  Grape- 


154  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

vine    Leaf-hopper,  Erythroneura  vitis   (E-ryth-ro- 
neu'ra  vi'tis),  is  a  well-known  pest  that  infests  the 
leaves  of  the  grape.     It  is  about  one-eighth  inch 
in  length,  crossed  by  two  blood-red  bands,  and  a 
third  dusky  one  at  the  apex.     It  is  often  improp. 
erly   called    the  "  Thrip"   by  grape-growers.     But 
the  term  Thrip  or  better  Thrips  should  be  restricted 
to  members  of  the  order  Physopoda.     The  Rose 
^cicad^r*.  Leaf-hopper,  Empoa  roses  (Em'po-a  ro'sae),  is  also  a 
(FromThe  well-known  pest,  as  it  often  swarms  on  the  leaves 
ReponTd?  of   roses,   doing   great  damage.      Its    presence    is 
usually   indicated    by  numerous  white    cast    skins 
adhering  to  the  lower  side  of  the  leaves. 

The  leaf-hoppers  can  be  destroyed  by  a  strong  solution 
of  soap,  or  with  kerosene  emulsion.  In  vineyards,  where  the 
use  of  these  substances  would  injure  the  fruit,  they  can  be 
trapped  by  two  persons  carrying  a  screen  covered  with 
tarred  paper  on  one  side  of  a  row  of  vines,  while  a  third  per- 
son walking  on  the  other  side  of  the  row  frightens  them 
from  the  vines  on  to  the  screen.  Dead  leaves  and  other 
rubbish,  among  which  these  insects  hibernate,  should  be 
burned  during  the  winter. 

Family  MEMBRACID^;  (Mem-brac'i-dae). 

The  Tree-hoppers. 

Nature  must  have  been  in  a  joking  mood  when  tree- 
hoppers  were  developed,  for  these  little  creatures  are  most 


FIG.  190. — Tree-hoppers. 


HEM  IP  TERA .  1 5  5 

comically  grotesque  in  appearance.  In  general  outline 
they  resemble  beech-nuts,  except  that  many  have  humps  on 
their  backs.  The  prothorax  is  prolonged  back- 
ward like  a  roof  over  the  body,  often  quite  covering 
it.  If  the  young  entomologist  wishes  to  laugh,  let 
him  look  at  the  faces  of  tree-hoppers  through  a 
lens  (Fig.  190).  Their  eyes  always  have  a 
droll  look,  and  the  line  that  separates  the  head  balus' 
from  the  prothorax  gives  them  the  appearance  of  wearing 
glasses.  In  some  cases  the  prothorax  is  elevated 
above  the  head,  so  that  it  looks  like  a  peaked 
nightcap  ;  in  others  it  is  shaped  like  a  Tam-o'- 
Shanter ;  and  sometimes  it  has  horns,  one  on  each 
side,  which  have  given  one  species  the  name  of 
the  Buffalo  Tree-hopper. 

Many  species  of  this  family  live  upon  bushes  or  small 
trees,  and  are  all  good  leapers  ;  hence  the  com- 
mon  name,  Tree-hoppers.     Some   species  ex- 
crete  honey-dew,   and   are  attended  by  ants. 
All  feed  upon  plants,  but  they  seldom  appear    FlG.  194._7>/«. 
in  sufficient  numbers  to  do  much  damage. 

The  accompanying  figures  will  show  some  of  the  more 
common  forms  seen  in  this  strange  family  (Figs.  191-194). 


Family  PSYLLID^:  (Psyl'li-dae). 

T/ie  Jumping  Plant-lice. 

The  jumping  plant-lice  are  comparatively  small  insects ; 
our  more  common  species  measuring  only  from  one-eighth 
to  one-sixth  inch  in  length,  and  it  is  rare  that  we  find  any 
twice  that  size.     When  examined  with  a  lens 
they    appear    like    tiny     Cicadas    (Fig.     195). 
Their  hind  legs  are  formed  for  jumping  ;  their 
antennae    are    nine  or    ten    jointed,    and    their 
tarsi  are  only  two-jointed.     Figure  197  repre- 
sents the  wings  of  a  common  species. 
FlGen?lr7edSylla'         The    Psyllidse    subsist    entirely    upon    the 


I56 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


juices  of  plants,  and  some  of  them  cause  serious  injuries. 
Many  species  form  galls ;  one  of  the  larger  of  these  infest 
the  Celtis  or  Hackberry. 


FIG.  196.— The  Pea-rtree  Psylla, 
greatly  enlarged. 


FIG.  197. — Venation  of  Wings:  j,  stigma; 
c,  clavus;  c.  s.,  claval  suture. 


The  most  destructive  member  of  this  family  in  the 
United  States  is  the  Pear-tree  Psylla,  Psylla  pyricola  (Psyl'la 
py-ric'o-la).  This  is  a  minute  species,  measuring  only  one- 
tenth  inch  in  length  to  the  tip  of  the  folded  wings  (Fig. 
196).  But  it  occurs  in  such  large  numbers  that  it  has 
destroyed  extensive  pear  orchards,  by  sucking  the  sap  from 
the  smaller  limbs  and  twigs.  It  can  be  destroyed  by 
spraying  the  infested  trees  with  kerosene  emulsion  imme 
diately  after  the  leaves  have  expanded  in  the  spring. 

Family  APHIDID^E  (A-phid'i-dae). 
The  Plant-lice  or  Aphids  (Aph'ids). 

The  plant-lice  are  well-known  insects;  they  infest  nearly 
all  kinds  of  vegetation  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Our 
most  common  examples  are  minute, 
soft-bodied,  green  insects,  with  long 
legs  and  antenna::,  which  appear  on 
various  plants  in  the  house  and  in  the 
field.  Among  our  common  species  are 
both  winged  and  wingless  forms  (Fig.  FIG.  198.— A  Grou 
198).  There  are  a  great  number  of  species,  nearly  all  of 


HEM  IP  TERA .  1 5  / 

which  are  of  small  size.  In  our  largest  species  the  body 
measures  only  about  one-fourth  inch  in  length,  and  usually 
these  insects  are  very  much  smaller. 

The  body  is  usually  more  or  less  pear-shaped.  The 
winged  forms  have  two  pairs  of  delicate,  transparent  wings. 
These  are  furnished  with  a  few  simple  veins,  but  the  vena- 
tion is  more  extended  than  in  either  of  the  two  following 
families.  The  first  pair  of  wings  is  larger  than  the  other, 
and  the  two  wings  of  each  side  are  usually  connected  by  a 
compound  hooklet.  The  beak  is  three-jointed,  and  varies 
greatly  in  length  ;  sometimes  it  is  longer  than  the  body. 
The  compound  eyes  are  prominent,  and  ocelli  are  also 
usually  present.  The  antennae  are  from  three  to  seven 
jointed.  On  the  back  of  the  sixth  abdominal  segment  there 
is,  in  many  species,  a  pair  of  tubes,  through  which  a  sweet, 
transparent  fluid  is  excreted.  In  some  genera  these  organs 
are  merely  perforated  tubercles,  while  in  still  other  genera 
they  are  wanting. 

The  fluid  which  is  excreted  through  the  abdominal 
tubercles  is  the  substance  known  as  honey-dew.  It  is  some- 
times produced  in  such  quantities  that  it  forms  a  glistening 
coating  on  the  leaves  of  the  branches  below  the  plant-lice, 
and  stone  walks  beneath  shade-trees  are  often  densely 
spotted  with  it.  This  honey-dew  is  fed  upon  by  bees,  wasps, 
and  ants.  The  bees  and  wasps  take  the  food  where  they 
find  it,  paying  little  if  any  attention  to  its  source ;  but  the 
ants  recognize  in  the  plant-lice  useful  auxiliaries,  and  often 
care  for  them  as  men  care  for  their  herds.  This  curious  re- 
lationship will  be  discussed  farther  under  the  head  of  Ants. 

It  is  easy  to  see  what  benefit  ants  derive  from  this  asso- 
ciation with  plant-lice,  and  how  they  should  learn  that  it  is 
worth  while  for  them  to  care  for  their  herds  of  honey-pro- 
ducing cattle.  Little  has  been  done,  however,  to  point  out 
the  great  benefit  that  accrues  to  the  plant-lice  from  this  re- 
lationship. It  seems  fair  to  assume  that  the  plant-lice  are 
greatly  benefited,  else  why  has  the  highly  specialized  appa- 


158  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

ratus  for  producing  the  honey-dew  been  developed  ?  Writers 
long  ago  showed  that  ants  protect  plant-lice  by  driving  away 
from  them  lady-bugs  and  other  enemies.  Recently,  how- 
ever, Professor  Forbes  has  demonstrated  that,  in  certain 
cases  at  least,  a  more  important  service  is  rendered.  In  his 
studies  of  the  Corn  Plant-louse,  Aphis  maidis  (A'phis 
mai'dis),  he  found  that  this  species  winters  in  the  wingless, 
agamic  form  in  the  earth  of  previously  infested  corn-fields, 
and  that  in  the  spring  the  plant-lice  are  strictly  dependent 
upon  a  species  of  ant,  Lasius  alienus  (Las'i-us  al-i-e'nus), 
which  mines  along  the  principal  roots  of  the  corn,  collects 
the  plant-lice,  and  conveys  them  into  these  burrows,  and 
there  watches  and  protects  them.  Without  the  aid  of  these 
ants,  the  plant-lice  were  unable  to  reach  the  roots  of  the  corn. 

In  addition  to  honey-dew,  many  Aphids  excrete  a  white 
substance.  This  may  be  in  the  form  of  powder,  scattered 
over  the  surface  of  the  body,  or  it  may  be  in  large  floccu- 
lent  or  downy  masses  ;  every  gradation  between  these  forms 
exists. 

The  plant-lice  are  remarkable  for  their  peculiar  mode  of 
development.  The  various  species  differ  greatly  in  the  de- 
tails of  their  transformation,  but  the  following  generaliza- 
tions can  be  made. 

There  are  several  distinct  forms  in  each  species,  each 
form  playing  a  peculiar  part  in  the  history  of  the  species. 
If  a  colony  of  plant-lice  be  examined  during  the  summer 
months  it  will  be  found,  usually,  to  consist  very  largely  of 
wingless  individuals  ;  these  are  females,  which  reproduce 
without  the  intervention  of  males.  This  is  the  wingless 
agamic  form.  In  many  cases  this  form  gives  birth  to  living 
young,  instead  of  laying  eggs ;  and  the  reproduction  of 
this  form  is  so  rapid,  that  it  would  be  disastrous  to  the 
species,  by  the  destruction  of  the  infested  plants  and  the 
consequent  starving  of  the  insects,  if  another  form  of  the 
species  did  not  arise.  But  from  time  to  time  young  are 
produced  which  become  winged,  and  thus  the  spread  of 


HEMIP  TERA .  159 

the  species  is  provided  for.  This  winged  form  also  con- 
sists entirely  of  females,  and  is  known  as  the  winged  agamic 
form.  They  produce  in  turn  the  wingless  agamic  form,  a 
single-winged  individual,  which  has  flown  to  a  new  plant, 
starting  a  new  colony.  Generally  on  the  setting  in  of  cold 
weather,  or  in  some  cases  on  the  failure  of  nourishment, 
the  weather  being  still  warm,  there  is  produced  a  generation 
including  individuals  of  both  sexes.  These  are  known  as 
the  sexual  forms.  The  males  may  be  either  winged  or 
wingless,  but  these  true  females  are  always  wingless.  The 
sexual  forms  pair,  and  the  female  produces  one  or  more 
true  eggs.  It  is  in  this  state  that  the  species  usually  pass 
the  winter,  and  consequently  these  eggs  produced  by  the 
sexual  form  are  often  called  the  winter  eggs,  to  distinguish 
them  from  egg-like  bodies  produced  by  the  agamic  forms  of 
certain  species,  and  which  are  termed  pseudova  (pseu-do'va). 
From  the  winter  egg  there  hatches,  usually  in  the  spring, 
an  agamic  female,  which,  as  she  is  the  stock  from  which  the 
summer  generations  spring,  is  often  called  the  stem-mother. 
The  peculiar  reproduction  of  the  agamic  forms  is  often 
termed  reproduction  by  budding. 

Plant-lice  are  often  very  destructive  to  vegetation.  The 
ordinary  methods  of  combating  them  are  either  by  the  use 
of  a  strong  solution  of  soap  or  with  kerosene  emulsion. 

Plant-lice  vary  greatly  in  their  habits.  Certain  species 
live  in  the  ground  on  the  roots  of  plants.  The  Lettuce 
Earth-louse,  Rhizobius  lactucce  (Rhi-zo'bi-us  lac-tu'cae),  is  a 
good  illustration.  This  occurs  on  the  roots  of  lettuce,  often  in 
great  numbers.  Other  species  are  found  on  the  roots  of  grasses 
or  herbaceous  plants  and  usually  accompanied  by  ants. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  species,  in  fact  the  majority  of 
Aphids,  pass  their  lives  on  the  foliage  of  plants,  infesting 
especially  the  tenderer  leaves.  Familiar  examples  are  the 
Cabbage  Aphis,  Aphis  brassicce  (A'phis  bras'si-cae),  the  Apple- 
tree  Aphis,  Aphis  malt,  the  Cherry-tree  Aphis,  Mysus  cerasi 
(My'sus  cer'a-si),  and  the  Peach-tree  Aphis,  Mysus  persicce 


160  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

(My'sus   per'si-cae).     The  last   three  are  almost  invariably 
attended  by  ants. 

The    Plant-lice    of   the   genus   Lachnus    (Lach'nus)   are 
usually  found   on  the  limbs  of  trees  and  shrubs.     To  this 
genus  belong  our  largest  Aphids.  some   of 
them  measuring  one-fourth   inch   in  length. 
Figure  199  represents  one  of  these  enlarged. 
Some  species  of  plant-lice  live   both  on 

FIG.  199. — Lachnus. 

the  roots  and  on  the  leaves  of  plants.  One 
of  these  is  the  Grape  Phylloxera,  Phylloxera  vastatrix  (Phyl- 
lox-e'ra  vas-ta'trix),  which  is  the  most  important  enemy  of 
the  grape.  The  presence  of  this  insect  is  manifested  by  the 
vines  in  two  ways :  first,  in  the  case  of  certain  species  of 
grapes,  there  appear  upon  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves 
fleshy  swellings,  which  are  more  or  less  wrinkled  and  hairy ; 
these  are  hollow  galls,  opening  upon  the  upper  surface  of 
the  leaf,  and  containing  a  wingless  agamic  plant-louse  and 
her  eggs ;  second,  when  the  fibrous  roots  of  a  sickly  vine  are 
examined,  we  find,  if  the  disease  is  due  to  this  insect,  that 
the  minute  fibres  have  become  swollen  and  knotty ;  or,  if 
the  disease  is  far  advanced,  they  may  be  entirely  decayed. 
Upon  these  root-swellings  we  also  find  an  agamic,  wingless, 
egg -laying  plant-louse,  the  author  of  the  mischief.  The 
insects  found  upon  the  roots  differ  slightly  from  those  found 
within  the  galls,  but  their  specific  identity  is  now  generally 
accepted. 

Owing  to  the  great  injury  which  this  species  has  done  to 
the  vineyards  of  France,  hundreds  of  memoirs  have  been 
published  regarding  it.  But  as  yet  no  satisfactory  means  of 
destroying  it  has  been  discovered.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  insecticide  must  be  one  that  can  penetrate  the 
ground  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet,  reaching  all  the 
fibrous  roots  infested  by  the  insect.  It  must  be  a  substance 
that  can  be  cheaply  applied  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  must 
also  be  something  that  will  kill  the  insect  without  injury  to 


HEMIPTERA.  l6l 

the  vine.  Carbon  bisulphide  has  been  used  to  some  extent 
for  this  purpose. 

Where  the  vineyards  are  so  situated  that  they  can  be 
submerged  for  a  period  of  at  least  forty  days  during  the 
winter,  the  insect  can  be  drowned.  But  this  method  is 
obviously  of  limited  application. 

It  is  found  that  vines  growing  in  very  sandy  soil  resist 
the  attacks  of  the  Grape  Phylloxera.  This  is  supposed  to  be 
due  to  the  difficulty  experienced  by  the  insect  in  finding 
passage  through  such  soil. 

Another  well-known  example  of  the  plant-lice  that  make 
galls  is  ColopJia  ulmicola  (Coro-pha  ul-mic'o-la),  which  makes 
the  Cockscomb  Elm-gall.  This  gall  is  shaped  more  or  less 
like  a  cock's  comb,  and  is  very  common  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  leaves  of  the  elm. 

There  is  a  group  of  species  of  plant-lice  known  as  the 
Woolly  Aphids,  on  account  of  a  white  more  or  less  downy 
or  waxy  substance  with  which  the  bodies  of  these  insects  are 
covered.  Large  numbers  of  one  of  these  species  are  often 
found  crowded  together  on  the  under  side  of  the  branches  of 
alder.  This  species  is  known  as  the  Alder-blight,  ScJiisoncura 
tesscllata  (Schiz-o-neu'ra  tes-sel-la'ta).  In  addition  to  the 
white  excretion  with  which  the  body  is  covered  this  insect 
excretes  large  quantities  of  honey-dew.  The  result  is  that 
the  branches  infested  by  this  insect,  and  those  beneath  the 
clusters  of  Aphids,  become  blackened  with  fungi  that  grow 
upon  this  secretion.  There  is  also  a  curious  fungus  which 
grows  in  large  spongy  masses  immediately  beneath  the- clus- 
ters of  plant-lice;  this  is  known  to  botanists  as  Scorias 
spongiosum.  It  is  evidently  fed  by  the  honey-dew  that  falls 
upon  it. 

The  Beech-tree  Blight,  Schisoneura  imbricator  (im-bri- 
ca'tor),  infests  both  the  twigs  and  leaves  of  beech.  Like 
the  preceding  species  it  occurs  in  clusters  of  individuals, 
each  of  which  is  clothed  with  a  conspicuous  downy  excre- 
tion. These  clusters  often  attract  attention  by  the  curious 


162  THE    STUDY  OF  MSSCTS. 

habit  that  the  insects  have  of  waving  their  bodies  up  and 
down,  the  plume-like  masses  of  excretion  rendering  them 
very  conspicuous.  When  an  infested  limb  is  jarred  the 
Aphids  emit  a  shower  of  honey-dew.  Owing  to  the  abun 
dance  of  this  secretion,  the  branches  and  leaves  of  an  infested 
tree  become  blackened  by  growths  of  fungi,  as  wirti  the 
preceding  species. 

The  Woolly-louse  of  the  Apple,  Schizoneura  lanigera 
(la-nig'e-ra),  is  one  of  the  best-known  pests  of  the  fruit- 
grower. In  its  most  conspicuous  form  it, appears  on  the 
trunks  and  limbs  of  apple-trees,  in  clusters  of  individuals, 
which  are  conspicuous  on  account  of  the  woolly  excretion 
with  which  the  bodies  are  covered.  It  is  especially  in- 
jurious to  young  trees,  the  bark  of  which  becomes  deeply 
pitted  and  scarred  by  its  attacks.  The  bark  apparently 
ceases  to  grow  at  the  point  of  attack,  but  swells  into  a 
large  ridge  about  the  cluster  of  lice,  leaving  them  in  a 
sheltered  pit.  •  The  lice  also  frequently  congregate  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  and  the  forks  of  the  branches.  This 
species  resembles  the  Grape  Phylloxera  in  having  a  root- 
inhabiting  form,  which  causes  knotty  swellings  on  the  fibrous 
roots.  It  is  the  presence  of  this  form  that  makes  this 
pest  such  a  difficult  one  to  combat.  For  as  it  works  deep 
in  the  ground  upon  the  fibrous  roots  of  trees,  the  same 
difficulties  are  met  in  attempting  to  destroy  it  that  are  pre- 
sented by  the  Grape  Phylloxera.  In  fact,  except  in  case  of 
an  especially  valuable  tree,  we  do  not  believe  that  it  will  pay 
to  attempt  to  save  a  tree  that  has  become  badly  infested 
by  the  woolly  aphis.  It  will  be  cheaper  to  dig  the  tree  up 
and  burn  it,  and  devote  the  ground  to  some  other  use. 
Another  species  of  tree  can  be  safely  planted  in  the  same 
place,  but  not  an  apple.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in 
putting  out  trees  from  a  nursery  to  see  that  they  are  free  from 
this  pest  If  there  is  any  doubt  the  trees  should  be  washed, 
roots  and  all,  in  a  strong  solution  of  soap.  It  is  well  also  to 
put  in  the  forks  of  the  trees  pieces  of  hard  soap,  which  will 


HEMIPTERA.  163 

be  dissolved  and  washed  down  by  the  rains.  This  will  serve 
to  destroy  certain  other  pests,  as  well  as  the  woolly  aphis. 
In  case  it  is  desired  to  rid  an  infested  tree  of  this  pest,  the 
trunk  form  should  be  washed  off  with  a  strong  solution  of 
soap  applied  with  a  sponge,  taking  care  to  destroy  all  eggs ; 
and  the  ground  should  be  treated  with  carbon  bisulphide,  as 
for  the  Grape  Phylloxera. 

Family  ALEYRODID.E  (Al-eu-rod'i-dae). 
The  Aleyrodes  (Al-eu-ro 'dcs\ 

The  insects  of  the  genus  Aleyrodes  were  for  a  long  time 
classed  with  the  Coccidae.  In  their  immature  state  they  are 
scale-like  in  form  (Fig.  200),  and  often  somewhat  resemble 
certain  species  of  Lecanium.  But  the 
mature  insects  differ  so  much  from  the 
Coccids  that  the  genus  has  been  sepa- 
rated as  a  distinct  family.  They  are  very 
small  insects;  the  species  with  which  I 
am  acquainted  have  an  expanse  of 
wings  of  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch. 
Both  sexes  are  winged  ;  and,  as  with 
other  Hemiptera  except  the  Coccids, 

there  are  two  pairs  of  wings.  In  the  adult  state,  all  the 
species  are  nearly  of  the  same  color ;  the  wings  are  white, 
sometimes  spotted  ;  the  body  is  usually  yellowish,  sometimes 
pinkish,  and  more  or  less  spotted  with  black.  The  most 
striking  character  presented  by  the  adults,  in  addition  to  the 
fact  that  both  sexes  are  winged  and  each  has  two  pairs  of 
wings,  is  the  presence  of  a  whitish  powder  with  which  the 
wings  and  body  are  covered.  It  is  this  character  that 
suggests  the  name  of  the  genus,  which  is  from  the  Greek 
aleurodes,  like  flour. 


164  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Family  COCCID^:  (Coc'ci-dae). 
The  Scale-bugs  or  Bark-lice,  Mealy-bugs,  and  otJiers. 

The  family  Coccidae  includes  the  Mealy-bugs,  the  Scale- 
bugs  or  Bark-lice,  and  certain  other  insects  for  which  there 
are  no  popular  names.  In  this  family  we  find  those  mem- 
bers of  the  Hemiptera  that  depart  most  widely  from  the 
type  of  the  order.  In  fact  this  is  a  very  anomalous  group, 
the  species  differing  greatly  in  appearance,  habits,  and  meta- 
morphoses from  those  of  the  most  closely  allied  families. 
Not  only  do  the  members  of  this  family  appear  very  unlike 
other  insects,  but  there  is  a  wonderful  variety  of  forms  within 
the  family,  and  even  the  two  sexes  of  the  same  species  differ 
as  much  in  the  adult  state  as  members  of  distinct  orders. 

The  males  of  Coccidae,  unlike  all  other  Hemiptera, 
undergo  a  complete  metamorphosis.  The  adult  males  have 
only  a  single  pair  of  wings,  the  hind  wings  being  represented 
by  a  pair  of  club-like  halteres.  Each  of  these  is  furnished 
with  a  bristle,  which  in  all  the  species  we  have  studied  is 
hooked,  and  fits  in  a  pocket  on  the  wing  of  the  same  side 
(Fig.  202).  The  male  in  the  adult  state  has  no  organs  for 
procuring  food,  as  the  mouth-parts  disappear  during  the 
metamorphosis  of  the  insect,  and  a  second  pair  of  eyes  ap- 
pear in  their  place.  The  adult  female  is  always  wingless, 
and  the  body  is  either  scale-like  or  gall-like  in  form,  or  grub- 
like  and  clothed  with  wax.  The  waxy  covering  may  be  in 
the  form  of  powder,  of  large  tufts  or  plates,  of  a  continuous 
layer,  or  of  a  thin  scale,  beneath  which  the  insect  lives. 

Among  the  Coccidae  are  found  many  of  the  most  serious 
pests  of  horticulturists.  Scarcely  any  kind  of  fruit  is  free 
from  their  attacks,  and  certain  species  of  scale-insects  and 
mealy-bugs  are  constant  pests  in  conservatories.  The  ease 
with  which  these  insects  or  their  eggs  can  be  transported 
long  distances  while  yet  alive,  on  fruit  or  living  plants,  has 


HEMIPTERA.  1 65 

caused  many  species  that  infest  cultivated  plants  to  become 
world-wide  in  distribution. 

During   recent  years    much  attention  has  been  paid  to 
devising  methods  of  destroying  these  pests.     Various  soapy 


FIG.  aoa.-The  Scurfy  Bark-louse.  Chio*a*pi*  /ur/urus :   i,    scales    natural    size;   ia, 
scale  of  male  enlarged  ;  16,  adult  male  enlarged  ;  ic,  scale  of  female  enlarged. 

or  alkaline  washes,  and  one  made  of  lime,  salt,  and  sulphur,  are 
now  used  on  the  trees  with  deciduous  foliage;  the  wash  is 
applied  during  the  winter  while  the  trees  are  naked.  In  the 
case  of  orange  and  lemon  trees,  which  are  constantly  clothed 
with  leaves,  a  large  tent  is  lowered  over  the  tree  and  a 


1 66 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


poisonous  gas  (hydrocyanic-acid  gas)  is  generated  within  the 
tent. 

A  number  of  useful  insects  belong  to  this  family.  Several 
species  furnish  dye-stuffs.  The  best  known  of  these  is 
Coccus  cacti,  the  dried  bodies  of  which  are  known  as  Cochi- 
neal. The  stick*  lac  of  commerce,  from  which  shell-lac  or 
shellac  is  prepared,  is  a  resinous  substance  excreted  by 
a  species,  Carteria  lacca  (Car-ter'i-a  lac'ca),  which  lives  on 
the  young  branches  of  several  tropical  trees,  and  the  bodies 
of  these  insects,  which  are  obtained  from  the  stick  lac,  furnish 
the  coloring  agents  known  as  lac  dye.  China  wax  is  another 
substance  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  this  family.  It  is  the 
excretion  of  an  insect  known  as  Pe-la,  Ericerus  pe-la  (E-ri- 
ce'rus).  In  fact  many  species  of  this  family  excrete  wax  in 
considerable  quantities. 

Among  the  more  prominent  members  of  this  family  are 
the  following: 

The  Cottony-cushion  Scale,  Icerya  pttrchasi  (I-ce'ry-a 
pur'cha-si).  —  This  beautiful  in 
sect  (Fig.  203)  was  at  one  time 
the  most  dangerous  insect 
pest  in  California,  and  did  a 
great  amount  of  injury.  It  is 
an  introduced  Australian  spe- 
cies, and  has  been  subdued  to 
a  great  extent  by  the  intro- 
duction of  an  Australian  Lady- 
bug,  Vedalia  (Ve-da'li-a),  which 
preys  upon  it.  The  body  of 
the  adult  female  is  scale-like, 
dark  orange-red,  and  has  the 
dorsal  surface  more  or  less 

covered  with  a  white  or  yel- 

lowish-white  powder.     The  in- 


sect secretes  a  large  egg-sac,  which  is  beautifully  ribbed. 
The     Mealy-bugs,     Dactylopius     (Dac-ty-lo'pi-us).  —  The 


HEMIPTERA. 


I67 


FIG.  lo^.—Dactylopius  citri,  fe- 
male, enlarged.  (From  the 
Author's  Report  for  1880.) 


FIG.  204. — Dactylopius  longispi- 
nus,  female,  enlarged.  (From 
the  Author's  Report  for  1880.) 


FIG.  ao6.— A". 


*ntes  sp.,  on  Quercus  agrifoliti.     Adult  females  on  stem  ;   immature  males 
on  leaves.     (From  the  Author's  Report  for  1880.) 


i68 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Mealy  Bugs  are  the  most  common  and  the  most  noxious  of 
green-house  pests ;  and  in  the  warmer  regions,  as  in  Florida, 
they  infest  plants  in  the  open  air.  Two  species  are  shown 
greatly  enlarged  in  Figures  204  and  205.  These  insects  are 
extremely  difficult  to  combat,  as  the  white  powder  with 
which  the  body  is  clothed  protects  them  from  the  sprays 
and  washes  ordinarily  used. 

Kcnnes. — Species  of  this  genus  are  common  upon  oaks 
wherever  they  grow.  These  insects  are  remarkable  for  the 
wonderful  gall-like  form  of  the  adult  females.  So  striking  is 
this  resemblance,  that  they  have  been  mistaken  for  galls  by 
many  entomologists.  Figure  206  represents  a  species  of  this 
genus  upon  Quercus  agrifolia.  The  gall-like  swellings  on  the 
stem  are  the  adult  females ;  the  smaller  scales  on  the  leaves 
are  the  immature  males. 

Orthezia  (Or-the'zi-a). — The  members  of  this  genus 
occur  not  uncommonly  on  vari- 
ous weeds.  They  are  remark- 
able for  the  calcareous  secretion 
with  which  the  body  is  clothed. 
This  is  in  the  form  of  long 
plates.  Figure  207  represents 
a  nymph ;  in  the  adult  female 
the  secretion  becomes  more 
elongated  posteriorly,  and 
forms  a  sac  containing  the  eggs 
mixed  with  a  fine  down.  Latei^ 
when  the  young  are  born,  they 
remain  in  the  sac  till  they  have 
themselves  secreted  a  sufficient 

FIG.    207.  —  Orthezia,  'enlarged.     (From  nrnniint  of    the    lamellar    miffpr 
the  Author's  Report  for  1880.)  am 

to  cover  them. 

Puhnnaria  (Pul-vi-na'ria). — This  genus  includes  species 
in  which  the  body  of  the  female  resembles  Lecanium,  de- 
scribed below,  but  which  excrete  a  large  cottony  egg-sac. 
This  egg-sac  is  not  ribbed,  but  is  of  the  form  shown  in 


HEMIPTERA. 


I69 


Figure  208.  The  species  figured  here  is  sometimes  very 
injurious  to  maple-trees ;  it  also  infests  grape-vines  and 
other  plants. 


FIG.  zoB.—Putvina 


•terabilis.     Female  on  grape,  natural  size.     (From  the 
Author's  Report  for  1880.) 


Lecanium  (Le-ca'ni-um). — The  species  of  the  genus  Le- 
canium  abound    everywhere  ;    they   occur   on    all  kinds    of 


FIG.  209. — Lecanium  olett ;  ia,  insect  enlarged.    (From  the  Author's  Report  for  1880.) 

plants,  both  in  conservatories  and  in  the  open  air.     Some  of 
them   are  known   to  gardeners  as    "  soft-scales."     But  the 


I/O  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

scientific  name  is  coming  into  general  use;  it  is  a  common 
thing  now  to  hear  fruit-growers  speak  of  the  Lecaniums, 
especially  in  California.  The  Lecaniums  are  naked  scale 
insects,  the  scale  being  the  body  of  the  insect.  These 
insects  are  flattish  or  more  or  less  hemispherical,  the  differ- 
ent species  differing  in  form,  and  are  usually  dark  brown  in 


FIG.  210. — Lecanium  hesperidum.     (From  the  Author's  Report  for  1880.) 


color.  The  eggs,  or  the  young  in  the  viviparous  species,  are 
deposited  beneath  the  scale-like  body  of  the  female.  Figure 
209  represents  Lecanium  olea  (o'le-ae),  which  is  very  com. 
mon  in  California,  where  it  is  known  as  the  black  scale; 
Figure  210,  the  soft  scale,  Lecanium  iicsperidum  (hes-per'i- 
dum),  which  is  common  on  various  plants  in  all  parts  of 


HEMIPTERA. 


171 


this  country;  and  Figure  211,  the  hemispherical  scale, 
Lecanium  hemispharicum  (hem-i-sphaer'i-cum),  which  occurs 
in  conservatories  everywhere,  and  in  the  open  air  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  Armored-scales  Sub-family  ZTzas/ft'%?  (Di-as-pi'nae). — 
The  great  majority   of   the    common   scale  insects  of  this 


FIG.  an.— Lecanium  hemisphcericum  ;  3^,  insect  enlarged.     (From  the  Author's  Report 
for  1880.) 

country  differ  from  the  forms  described  above  in  that  the 
body  of  the  insect,  except  for  a  very  short  period  after 
birth,  is  covered  with  a  scale  composed  in  part  of  an  excre- 
tion of  the  insect  and  partly  of  molted  skins.  Thus  in  the 
Lecaniums  the  scale-like  object  is  the  body  of  the  insect; 
but  in  the  case  of  the  Oyster-shell  Bark-louse,  the  Pernicious 


1/2 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Scale,  and  of  many  other  forms,  the  scale-like  object  com- 
monly seen  is  not  the  insect,  but  an  armor  beneath  which  it 
lives. 

The  young  insects  of  this  sub-family  resemble  in  general 
appearance  those  of  other  scale  insects.  Their  active  stage, 
however,  is  much  shorter.  After  crawling  about  over  the 


IMG.  212. — Chionaspis pinifolite :  2,  scales  on  Pinus  strobus,  natural  size,  leaves  stunted; 
2<i,  leaves  of  P.  strobus  not  stunted  by  scale  insects;  vb,  scale  of  female,  usual 
form,  enlarged  ;  z<r,  scale  of  female,  wide  form,  enlarged  ;  2</,  scale  of  male  en- 
larged. 

twigs  of  a  tree  for  a  few  days,  the  young  scale  insect  settles 
upon  a  suitable  place  and  immediately  begins  to  excrete 
a  cottony  substance  which  soon  becomes  compacted  into  a 
thin  pellicle  covering  the  body.  As  the  insect  grows  and 
needs  to  shed  its  skin,  this  cast  skin  is  joined  to  the  excretion 
and  forms  a  part  of  the  scale.  This  is  the  bright-colored, 
nipple-like  prominence,  seen  in  the  centre  of  the  Pernicious 


HEMIPTERA. 


173 


Scale  and  of  the  Red  Scale  of  the  Orange  ;  and  it  may  be  seen 
at  the  smaller  end  of  the  scale  of  the  Oyster-shell  Bark-louse. 
The  position  of  this  cast  skin  in  the  scale  differs  in  differ- 
ent genera,  and  forms  a  good  character  for  classification. 

Closely  allied  species  differ  but  little  in  the  form  of  the 
scale.     To  distinguish   these   it   is   necessary   to   study  the 


FIG.  213.— Aspidiotus  aurantii  :  scales  on  leaves  of  orange,  natural  size;  in,  adult  male- 
much  enlarged ;  ib,  scale  of  female  enlarged;  ic,  scale  of  male,  enlarged. 

insects  themselves,  which  are  found  beneath  the  scales 
The  distinctions  between  closely  allied  species  are  such, 
that  it  requires  very  close  observation  and  much  skill  in  this 
particular  line  to  make  the  determinations,  a  careful  prepa- 
ration of  the  specimens  and  an  excellent  microscope  being 
necessary  requisites. 

The  different  species  of  scale-insects  vary  as  regards  their 
food  habits.     We  find  that  certain  species  infest  particular 


174  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

plants  and  will  feed  upon  no  others ;  thus,  the  Red-scale  of 
the  Orange  does  not  trouble  deciduous  fruits.  On  the  other 
hand,  other  species  have  a  wide  range  of  food  plants.  This 
is  the  case  of  the  Greedy-scale,  which  infests  a  great  variety 
of  both  cultivated  and  wild  plants. 

Figure  202,  page  165,  represents  the  Scurfy  Bark-louse, 
Chionaspis  furfurns  (Chi-o-nas'pis  fur'fur-us),  a  species  very 
widely  distributed  on  apple,  pear,  and  cherry  ;  Figure  212,  the 
Pine-leaf  Scale,  Chionaspis  pinifolice  (pin-i-fo'li-ae),  which 
occurs  on  various  species  of  pine  and  spruce  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States  where  these  trees  grow;  and  Figure  213 
represents  the  red  scale  of  California,  Aspidiotus  aurantii 
(As-pid-i-o'tus  au-ran'ti-i),  which  is  very  destructive  to 
oranges  and  lemons. 


FIG.  *n.—Nepa.  apiculata.    See  p.  131. 


CHAPTER   XV. 
Order  NEUROPTERA  (Neu-rop'te-ra). 

The  Dobson,  Aphis-lions,  A  nt-lions,  and  others. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings  ;  these  are  mem- 
branous and  furnished  with  numerous  veins,  and  usually  with 
many  cross  veins.  The  head  is  not  prolonged  into  a  beak.  The 
mouth-parts  are  formed  for  biting.  The  metamorphosis  is 
complete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is  from  two  Greek  words :  neuron,  a 
nerve  ;  andpteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the  numerous  nerves, 
or  veins  as  they  are  more  commonly  called,  with  which  the 
wings  are  furnished. 

When  the  name  Neuroptera  was  first  used  it  was  applied 
to  a  much  larger  group  of  insects  than  now,  a  group  which 
has  since  been  divided  into  many  orders.  So  that  now, 
while  the  name  expresses  a  character  which  is  true  of  the 
order,  it  is  also  true  of  many  others.* 

The  order  Neuroptera  as  now  restricted  is  represented  in 
the  United  States  by  seven  families.  These  can  be  separated 
by  the  following  table  : — 

TABLE  FOR  DETERMINING  THE  FAMILIES  OF  NEUROPTERA. 

A.  Prothorax  as  long  as  or  longer  than  the  mesothorax  and  the 
metathorax  combined. 

B.  Fore  legs   greatly  enlarged  and   fitted  for  grasping,      p.  179. 

MANTISPID^E. 

*  The  Neuroptera  of  the  older  Entomologists  included  the  following 
orders  :  Thysanura,  Ephemerida,  Odonata,  Plecoptera,  Isoptera,  Corroden- 
tia,  Mallophaga,  Neuroptera,  Mecoptera,  and  Trichoptera. 

175 


176  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

BB.   Fore  legs  not  enlarged,  and  not  fitted  for  grasping,     p.  178. 

RAPHIDIID^E. 

AA.  Prothorax  not  as  long  as  the  mesothorax  and  the  metathorax 
combined. 

B.   Hind  wings  broad  at  the  base,  and  with  that  part  nearest  the 
abdomen    (the  anal   area)  folded   like  a   fan  when  not  in  use. 

p.  176 SIALID.E. 

BB.  Hind  wings  narrow  at  base,  and  not  folded  like  a  fan  when 
closed. 

C.  Wings  with  very  few  veins,  and  covered  with  whitish  powder. 
(As  this  family  includes  only  very  rare  insects  it  is  not  dis- 
cussed in  this  book.) CONIOPTERYGID^E. 

CC.  Wings  with  numerous  veins,  and  not  covered  with  powder. 
D.  Antennae  gradually  enlarged  towards  the  end,  or  filiform 

with  a  terminal  knob.     p.  182 MYRMELEONIDA:. 

DD.  Antennae  without  terminal  enlargement. 

E.  Some  of  the  transverse  veins  between  the  costa  and  sub- 
costa   forked  (in  all  common  forms),  wings  brownish  or 

smoky,    p.  181 HEMEROBIID^E. 

EE.  Transverse  veins  between  the  costa  and  subcosta  simple, 
wings  greenish,     p.  180 CHRYSOPID^E. 


Family  SlALlD^E  (Si-al'i-dae). 
The  Dobsou  and  others. 

The  members  of  this  family  differ  greatly  in  size  and  ap- 
pearance ;  but  they  agree  in  having  the  hind  wings  wide  at 
the  base,  and  in  having  that  part  of  these  wings  nearest  the 
abdomen  (the  anal  area)  more  or  less  folded  in  plaits  when 
the  wings  are  closed. 

The  species  that  is  most  likely  to  attract  attention  is  the 
Horned  Corydalis,  Corydalis  cornnta  (Co-ryd'a-lis  cor-nu'ta). 
This  is  a  magnificent  insect,  which  has  a  wing  expanse  of 
from  four  to  nearly  five  and  a  half  inches.  Figure  215 
represents  the  male,  which  has  remarkably  long  mandibles. 
The  female  resembles  the  male,  except  that  the  mandibles 
are  comparatively  short. 


NEUROPTERA. 


177 


This  species  is  common  throughout  the  United  States. 
The  larvae  are  called  Dobsons  by  anglers  and  are  used  by 
them  for  bait,  especially  for  bass.  Figure  216  represents  a 
full-grown  Dobson,  natural  size.  These  larvae  live  under 
stones  in  the  beds  of  streams.  They  are  most  abundant  where 
the  water  flows  swiftest.  They  are  carnivorous,  feeding  V-  -i- 
upon  the  nymphs  of  Stone-flies,  May-flies,  and  other  insects. 


FIG.  2is.—Corydalt. 


FIG.  **(>.— Cerydali 


When  about  two  years  and  eleven  months  old,  the  larva  leaves 
the  water,  and  makes  a  cell  under  a  stone  or  some  other 
object  on  or  near  the  bank  of  the  stream.  This  occurs  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  summer ;  here  the  larva  changes  to 
a  pupa.  In  about  a  month  after  the  larva  leaves  the  water 
the  adult  insect  appears.  The  eggs  are  then  soon  laid ; 


1/8  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

these  are  attached  to  stones  or  other  objects  overhanging 
the  water.  They  are  laid  in  blotch-like  masses,  which  are 
chalky-white  in  color,  and  measure  from  half  an  inch  to  nearly 
an  inch  in  diameter.  A  single  mass  contains  from  two  thou- 
sand to  three  thousand  eggs.  When  the  larvs  hatch  they 
at  once  find  their  way  into  the  water,  where  they  remain 
until  full  grown. 

There  are  other  common  species  of  the  family  which 
closely  resemble  Corydalis  but  are  smaller,  the  larger  ones 
measuring  less  than  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  and 
having  a  wing  expanse  of  not  more  than  four  inches.  These 
insects  also  differ  from  Corydalis  in  having  three  ocelli  and 
in  lacking  the  sharp  tooth-like  angles  on  the  sides  of  the  back 
part  of  the  head.  See  Figure  215  of  the  adult  Corydalis. 
These  species  belong  to  the  genus  Chauliodes  (Chau-li'o-des). 

Chauliodes  pecticornis  (pec-ti-cor'nis)  is  a  common  species 
with  grayish  wings  and  feather-like  antennae.  Chauliodes 
serricornis  (ser-ri-cor'nis)  is  also  common  ;  this  is  a  brownish- 
black  species  with  the  wings  spotted  with  white,  and  with 
serrate  antennae. 

Family  RAPHIDIID^E  (Raph-i-di'i-dae.)  ..^ 
The  Rafhidians  (Ra-pJiid' i-ans).    ;ct^~^ i-> 

"       -n^  i  ^  ic  W*'? 

The  members  of  this  family  are  found  in  this  country 
only  in  the  far  West.  They  are  strange-appearing  insects, 
the  prothorax  being  greatly  elongated,  like  the  neck  of  a 
camel  (Fig.  217).  The  female  bears  a  long, 
slender,  sickle-shaped  ovipositor  at  the  end 
of  the  abdomen.  The  fore  legs  resemble 

FIG. 217.— Raphidia, 

female.  the  other  pairs  of  legs,  and  are  borne  at  the 

hinder  end  of  the  prothorax. 

The  larvae  are  found  under  bark  and  are  carnivorous. 
We  have  found  them  common  under  the  loose  bark  of  the 
Eucalyptus.  They  also  occur  in  orchards,  and  doubtless  do 
good  by  destroying  the  larvae  and  pupae  of  the  Codlin-moth. 


NE  UROP TERA .  1 79 

r 

Living  specimens  of  these  insects  have  been  sent  to  Aus- 
tralia by  our  government  in  the  hope  of  introducing  the 
species  there,  and  thus  doing  something  towards  repaying 
the  debt  that  we  owe  that  country  for  the  Australian  Lady- 
bug,  which  has  rendered  us  great  service  in  the  destruction 
of  the  Cottony-cushion  Scale  in  California. 

The  family  is  represented  by  two  genera,  Raphidia  (Ra- 
phid'i-a)  and  Inocellia  (In-o-cerii-a).  In  the  former  there 
are  three  simple  eyes  on  the  top  of  the  head  between  the 
compound  eyes ;  in  the  latter  these  ocelli  are  wanting. 

Family  MANTISPID^:  (Man-tis'pi-dae). 
The  Mantis-like  Neuroptera. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  even  stranger  in  appear- 
ance than  the  Raphidians.  Here,  as  in  that  family,  the 
prothorax  is  greatly  elongated  ;  but  the  members  of  this 
family  can  be  easily  recognized  by  their  remarkable  fore 
legs,  which  are  greatly  enlarged  and  resemble  those  of  the 
Praying  Mantes  in  form  (Fig. 
2 1 8).  These  legs  are  fitted  for 
seizing  prey ;  and,  in  order 
that  they  may  reach  farther 
forward,  they  are  joined  to 
the  front  end  of  the  long  pro- 
thorax.  In  the  adult  state 
these  insects  are  predaceous; 
while  the  larvae,  so  far  as  is  FlG.  2^_ManiiJa,  In  the  specimer 
known,  are  parasitic  in  the  ^what" in  2?.^ ^^thLwibr» 
egg-sacs  of  spiders. 

Five  species  of  the  family  are  known  from  the  United 
States ;  four  of  these  belong  to  the  genus  Mantispa  (Man- 
tis'pa)  and  one  to  Symphasis  (Sym'pha-sis). 


ISO  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Family  CHRYSOPID^E  (Chry-sop'i-dae). 
The  Lace-winged-flies  or  Aphis-lions. 

If  one  will  search  the  foliage  of  herbs,  shrubs,  or  trees, 
there  may  be  found,  running  rapidly  around  on  the  leaves, 
sturdy,  spindle-formed,  little  insects  that  have  great  sickle- 
shaped  jaws  (Fig.  219).  These  larvae  are  always  hungry, 
and  will  kill  and  eat  any  insects  that  they  can  overpower ; 


FIG.  219.— Eggs,  larva,  cocoon,  and  adult  of  Chrysofla. 


but  as  they  are  especially  destructive  to  plant-lice,  they  are 
called  Aphis-lions. 

When  an  Aphis-lion  is  full  grown  it  rolls  itself  up  into  a 

tiny  ball    and    weaves   around    itself   a    glistening,    white 

cocoon,  which  looks  like  a  large  seed-pearl.     It    may  be 

supposed  that  while  the  Aphis-lion  is  secluded  in  this  pearly 

1  it  repents  its  greedy,  murderous  ways,  and  changes  in 

spirit  ;  at  least  the  body  changes  greatly,  for,  after  a  time,  a 

circular  lid  is  made  in  the  cocoon,  and  out  of  this  emerges 

a  beautiful,   dainty   creature,   with    delicate-veined,   green 

tings,  a  pale   green  body,  slender,    brown    antennae,   and 

a  pair  of  large  eyes   that   shine  like  melted   gold.       It 


s 


NEUROPTERA.  igl 

sometimes  called  Golden-eyes,  and  sometimes,  a  Lace-winged- 
fly,  from  its  appearance.  The  Lace-wing  is  a  prudent 
mother ;  she  knows  that  if  she  lays  her  eggs  together  on  a 
leaf  the  first  Aphis-lion  that  hatches  will  eat  for  his  first 
meal  all  his  unhatched  brothers  and  sisters.  She  guards 
against  this  fratricide  by  laying  each  egg  on  the  top  of  a 
stiff  stalk  of  hard  silk  about  half  an  inch  high.  Groups  of 
these  eggs  are  very  pretty,  looking  like  a  tiny  forest  of 
white  stems  bearing  on  their  summits  round  glistening  fruit. 
When  the  first  of  the  brood  hatches,  he  scrambles  down  as 
best  he  can  from  his  egg  perch  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf, 
and  runs  off,  quite  unconscious  that  the  rest  of  his  family 
are  reposing  in  peace  high  above  his  head. 

The  mouth-parts  of  these  larvae  are  very  unusual  in 
form.  The  mandibles  are  very  long ;  on  the  lower  side  of 
each  of  them  there  is  a  furrow  the  entire  length ;  into  this 
furrow  the  long  and  slender  maxilla  fits.  In  this  way  the 
mandible  and  the  maxilla  of  each  side  form  a  tube,  through 
which  the  blood  of  the  prey  of  the  insect  can  be  drawn. 
This  explains  why  an  Aphis  iion  holds  its  prey  on  the  tips 
of  its  long  jaws,  at  arm's  length,  as  it  were,  while  sucking 
its  blood. 

Nearly  all  of  the  members  of  this  family  belong  to  the 
genus  Ckrysopa  (Chry-so'pa). 

Family  HEMEROBllDyE  (Hem-e-ro-bi'i-dae). 
The  Hemerobians  (Hem-e-ro'bi-ans). 

The  common  members  of  this  family  are  rather  dark- 
colored  insects,  with  the  wings  mottled  with  dark  brown  or 
smoky  specks,  and  with  some  of  the  veins  between  the  costa 
and  subcosta  forked. 

The  most  conspicuous  member  of 'the  family  is  Polys- 
tcechotes  punctatus  (Pol-ys-tcech'o-tes  punc-ta'tus),  which  is 
represented  natural  size  by  Figure  220.  The  larva  is 
unknown. 


1 82  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  larger  number  of  the  species  of  this  family  belong 
to  the  genus  Hemerobius  (Hem-e-ro'bi-us).  These  are  small- 
ish insects,  the  largest  of  which 
expands  hardly  an  inch.  They 
occur  in  forests,  and  especially 
on  cone  -  bearing  trees.  The 
FIG.  220.— Poiystackotes  punctatus.  }arvae  bear  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  Aphis-lions,  and  like  them  feed  upon  Aphids 
and  other  small  insects.  After  sucking  the  blood  from  their 
victims,  they  make  cloaks  for  themselves  of  the  empty  skins. 

Family  MYRMELEONID^E  (Myr-me-le-on'i-dae). 
The  Ant-lions  and  others. 

The  Ant-lions,  Myrmeleon  (Myr-me'le-on).  —  In  sandy 
places  beneath  overhanging  cliffs,  beneath  buildings,  and 
along  sandy  banks  where  the  sun  shines  warmest,  there  may 
be  found,  in  all  parts  of  our  land,  little,  funnel-shaped  pits 
one  or  two  inches  across  (Fig.  221).  The  sides  are  smooth 
and  as  steep  as  the  sand 
will  lie  ;  and  at  the  bottom 
may  be  seen  two  small 
curved  objects.  All  is  still 
and  motionless  until  some 
ant,  hurrying  along  with 
mind  intent  upon  business,  FlG>  22I-Pitfa11  of  an  Ant-lion. 

carelessly  runs  over  the  edge  of  one  of  these  pitfalls.  Then 
the  ant  commences  to  slide  down,  while  some  force  below 
throws  out  the  sand  from  under  its  struggling  feet,  until  it 
slides  into  the  bottom,  where  literally  jaws  of  death  are 
awaiting  it.  For  the  curved  objects  are  a  pair  of  jaws, 
attached  to  a  strong  head,  and  closely  connected  with  a 
greedy  stomach.  If  we  dig  out  the  owner  of  the  jaws  we 
find  it  a  spry,  humpbacked  creature,  which  moves  backward 
more  easily  than  forward.  It  is  worth  while  to  collect  some 


NEUROPTERA. 


183 


of  these  larvae,  and  place  them  in  a  basin  of  sand,  and 
watch  them  build  their  pits.  They  do  this  by  using  the  head 
for  a  shovel.  Sometimes  when  an  ant  seems  likely  to  escape, 
the  Ant-lion  will  throw  up  a  torrent  of  sand  so  that  it  will 
descend  on  the  victim,  knocking  it  back  into  the  pit. 

When  ready  to  change  to  a  pupa  the  Ant-lion  makes  for 
itself  a  little,  round  cocoon  of  sand  fastened  together  and  lined 
with  silk.  The  adult  Ant-lion  is  a  graceful  insect  with  long, 
narrow,  delicate  wings,  and  a  slender  body  (Fig.  222). 


FIG.  222.— 'Larva,  cocoon  with  pupa-skin  projecting,  and  adult  of  an  Ant-lion. 

Certain  members  of  this  family  differ  from  the  ant-lions 
in  having  long,  filiform  antennae,  which  are  suddenly  en- 
larged at  the  end.  These  belong  to  the  genus  Ascalaphns 
(As-cal'a-phus). 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
Order  MECOPTERA  (Me-cop'te-ra). 

The  Scorpion- flies  and  others. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings  ;  these  are 
membranous,  and  furnished  with  numerous  veins.  The  head 
is  prolonged  into  a  beak,  at  the  end  of  which  biting  mouth 
parts  are  situated.  The  metamorphosis  is  complete. 

This  is  a  small  order  composed  of  very  remarkable  in- 
sects.    The  most  striking  character  common  to  all  is  the 
shape  of  the  head,  which  is  prolonged  into  a  beak  (Fig.  223). 
The  name  Mecoptera  is  from  two  Greek  words ; 
A^,^      mccos,  length  ;  and  pteron,  a  wing.      This  order 
li^^          includes  only  a   single  family,  the  Panorpidcz. 


\ 


Family  PANORPID/E  (Pa-nor'pi-dae). 
^  The  Scorpion-flies  and  others. 

TK  We  have  found  representatives  of  this  family 

quite  abundant  on  rank  herbage  growing  on 
FIG.  27,  -Head  tne  banks  of  a  shaded  stream  ;  we  have  also 
*°r/*.'  °  ""  found  them  in  damp  woods  where  there  was  a 
luxuriant  undergrowth  of  herbaceous  plants. 
These  insects  take  flight  readily  when  disturbed  ;  they  are  car- 
nivorous both  in  the  adult  and  in  the  larval  state.  The  larvae 
larvae  so  far  as  known  are  remarkable  on  account  of  their 
great  resemblance  to  caterpillars.  Not  only  is  the  form  of 
the  body  like  that  of  a  caterpillar,  but  the  abdomen  is  fur- 
nished with  fleshy  pro-legs.  There  are,  however,  eight  pairs 
of  these  ;  while  caterpillars,  as  a  rule,  have  only  five. 

184 


MECOPTERA.  185 

The  most  common  members  of  this  family  are  the 
Scorpion-flies,  Panorpa  (Pa-nor'pa).  These  are  called  Scor- 
pion-flies on  account  of  the  peculiar  form  of  the  caudal  part 
of  the  abdomen  of  the  male  (Fig  223).  This  at  first  sight 
suggests  the  corresponding  part  of  a  scorpion  ; 
but  in  reality  the  two  are  very  different.  The 
last  segment,  instead  of  ending  in  a  sting  like 
that  of  a  scorpion,  is  greatly  enlarged  and  bears 
a  pair  of  clasping  organs.  The  wings  are  nar- 
row but  are  well  developed,  being  longer  than 
the  body.  In  our  more  common  species  they  are  FlG  „<._/>,. 
yellowish,  spotted  with  brownish  black  (Fig.  224).  norpa' adult- 

Very  closely  allied  to  the  Scorpion-flies  are  the  insects  of 
the  genus  Bittacus  (Bit'ta-cus).  These  insects  have  long 
narrow  wings,  long  legs,  and  a  slender  abdomen.  They  re- 
semble crane-flies  very  closely  when  on  the  wing.  In  this 
genus  the  caudal  appendages  of  the  male  are  not  enlarged  as 
in  Panorpa. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Boreus  (Bo're-us)  are  remarka- 
ble for  occurring  on  snow,  in  the  winter,  in  our  Northern 
States. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

Order  TRICHOPTERA  (Tri-chop'te-ra)c 

The  Caddice-flies  or  Caddice-worms. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings;  these  are 
membranous,  furnished  with  numerous  longitudinal  veins  but 
with  only  few  cross  veins,  and  are  more  or  less  densely  clothed 
with  hairs.  The  mouth-parts  are  rudimentary.  The  meta- 
morphosis  is  complete. 

The  Caddice-flies  are  moth-like  insects  which  are  com- 
mon in  the  vicinity  of  streams,  ponds,  and  lakes ;  and  they 
are  also  frequently  attracted  to  lights  at  night. 

The  body-wall  of  these  insects  is  soft,  being  membran- 
ous or  at  the  most  parchment-like,  and  is  thickly  clothed 
with  hairs.  There  are  usually  four  ample  wings.  These 
are  membranous  ;  but  the  fore  pair  are  more  leathery  than 
the  hind  pair.  When  not  in  use  they  are  folded  against 
the  sides  of  the  abdomen,  in  an  almost  vertical  position, 
and  give  the  insect  a  narrow  and  elongated  appearance 
(Fig.  225).  The  wings  are  more  or  less  densely  clothed 
with  hairs ;  and  in  some  cases  the 
hairs  are  scale-like  in  form.  The  hind 
wings  are  usually  broader  than  the 
fore  wings,  and  are  often  longitudi- 

Fic.  225.— Caddice-fly.  ,,       ,    ,.      ,    .  A  11   i 

nally  folded  in  repose.  All  have  nu- 
merous longitudinal  veins,  but  the  cross  veins  are  few. 

The  name  of  the  order  is  from  two  Greek  words ;  thrix, 
a  hair ;  and  pteron,  a  wing. 

The  order  includes  only  a  single  family,  the  Phryganeida. 

186 


TRICHOPTERA.  l8/ 

Family  PHRYGANEID^:  (Phryg-a-ne'i-dae). 
The  Caddice-flies  or  Caddie e-worms. 

The  young  naturalist  loves  to  lie  face  downward  on  the 
bank  of  a  brook,  and,  with  shaded  eyes,  watch  the  busy  life 
that  goes  on  there.  Among  the  astonishing  things  he  sees 
are  little  bundles  of  sticks  or  masses  of  stones  moving  about 
the  bottom  of  a  quiet  pool  as  if  they  were  alive ;  and  yet  if 
he  takes  them  out  they  seem  dead  enough.  But  when 
he  pulls  them  apart  he  finds  that  each  is  a  tube  lined 
with  silk  within  which  a  whitish  larva  lives.  This  larva, 
when  it  wishes  to  move,  puts  out  the  front  part  of  its  body, 
so  that  it  can  creep  with  its  legs  over  the  bottom  of  the 
stream,  or  climb  up  and  down  water-plants,  dragging  its 
house  along  after  it.  When  molested  it  draws  back  into  its 
tube,  and  is  safe.  Larvae  of  this  sort  are  called  Caddice- 
worms ;  and  the  adult  insects  are  known  as  Caddice-flies. 

There  are  very  many  species  of  Caddice-worms  ;  and  each 
species  makes  a  particular  kind  of  tube.  Some  Caddice- 
worms  are  carpenters,  building  their  houses  of  straws  or 

sticks.  These  are  usu- 
ally placed  lengthwise 
the  body  (Fig.  226); 
but  certain  species  that 
FIG.  226.  make  their  houses  chief- 

ly of  straws  fasten  the  straws  crosswise  like  the  logs  of  a 
log-house  (Fig.  227).     These  log-house  builders 
often  have  the  curious  habit  of  decorating,their 
houses  by  fastening  snail-shells  to  the  outside. 
And  strangely  enough  they  do  not  always  take 
empty  shells  for  this  purpose ;  we  have  found 
shells  containing  living  snails  securely  fastened       FlG-  "7- 
to  the  outside  of  the  house  of  a  Caddice-worm.     In  this  case 
the  snail   was  afforded   comparatively  rapid   transportation 
whether  it  desired  it  or  not.     Fortunately  the  species  that 


--&- 

f 


,88  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

make  this  style  of  house  live  in  still  water,  and  may,  there- 
fore, be  easily  kept  alive  in  aquaria. 

There  are  caddice-worm  houses  closely  resembling  in  plan 
those  just  described  but  differing  in  appearance,  being  made 
of  bits  of  moss.  Sometimes  the  houses  are  built  of  leaves  ; 
these  may  be  fastened  so  as  to  form  a  flat  case ;  or  are  ar- 
ranged in  three  planes,  so  as  to  form  a  tube,  a  cross-section 
of  which  is  a  triangle. 

Other  Caddice-worms  are  masons,  building  their  houses  of 
grains  of  sand  or  of  small  stones.  Sometimes  these  houses 
are  tubes  very  regular  in  outline,  being  composed  only  of 
grains  of  sand  fastened  together  with  silk  ;  but  certain  spe- 
cies of  Mason  Caddice-worms  fasten  larger  stones  on  each  side 
of  this  tube  of  sand  (Fig.  228).  Some  of  the  species  that 


f 


FIG.  228.  FIG.  229. 

build  tubes  of  sand  make  spiral  houses  which  very  closely 
resemble  in  form  snail-shells  (Fig.  229). 

Whether  stones  or  wood  are  used  to  build  these  houses 
the  material  is  always  fastened  together  by  silk,  which  the 
larvae  spin  from  the  mouth  in  the  same  manner  as  do  cater- 
pillars.     In    some  species    the    case    is 
composed  entirely  of  silk.      Figure   230 
represents  the  form  of  such  a  case,  which 
*  is  common  in  some  of  our  lakes. 

Among  the  simplest  of  the  various  forms  of  houses  built 
by  Caddice-worms  are  those  made  by  certain  species  that  live 
under  stones  in  rapid  streams.  These  consist  merely  of  a 
few  pebbles  fastened  to  the  lower  surface  of  a  larger  stone 
by  threads  of  silk.  In  the  space  between  these  pebbles  the 
worm  makes  a  more  or  less  perfect  tube  of  silk,  within  which 


TR1CHOP  TERA .  1 89 

it  lives.  Very  little  respect  for  the  architectural  skill  of 
these  builders  is  commanded  by  their  rude  dwellings.  But 
if  one  looks  a  little  farther,  something  will  be  found  that  is 
sure  to  excite  admiration.  The  dweller  within  this  rude  re- 
treat is  a  fisherman  ;  and  stretched  between  two  stones  near 
by  can  be  seen  his  net.  This  is  made  of  silk.  It  is  usually 
funnel-shaped,  opening  up-stream  ;  and  in  the  centre  of  it 
there  is  a  portion  composed  of  threads  of  silk  extending  in 
two  directions  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  so  as  to  form 
meshes  of  surprising  regularity.  It  is  as  if  a  spider  had 
stretched  a  small  web  in  the  water  where  the  current  is  the 
swiftest.  These  nets  occur  in  rapids  between  stones,  but  in 
many  places  they  are  to  be  found  in  greater  numbers  along 
the  brinks  of  falls.  Here  they  are  built  upon  the  surface  of 
the  rock,  in  the  form  of  semi-elliptical  cups,  which  are  kept 
distended  by  the  current.  Much  of  the  coating  of  dirt  with 
which  these  rocks  are  clothed  in  summer  is  due  to  its  being 
caught  in  these  nets.  We  have  not  yet  observed  the  owners 
of  the  nets  taking  their  prey  from  them  ;  but  we  cannot 
doubt  that  they  are  made  to  trap  small  insects  or  other  ani- 
mals that  are  being  carried  down-stream  ;  for  the  larvae  of 
the  sub-family  to  which  these  net-builders  belong,  the  Hy- 
dropsydiin(Z,  are  known  to  be  carnivorous.  It  should  be 
noted  here,  however,  that  the  greater  number  of  Caddice- 
worms  are  herbivorous. 

When  a  Caddice-worm  gets  ready  to  change  to  a  pupa  it 
retires  into  its  house  and  builds  a  door  to  keep  intruders 
out ;  but  the  door  always  has  an  opening  to  allow  the  water 
to  flow  in  so  that  the  pupa  can  breathe.  Sometimes  a  simple 
grating  of  silk  is  made  over  the  entrance. 

On  one  occasion  the  writer  had  the  good  fortune  to  ob- 
serve a  Caddice-fly  leave  the  water  and  take  its  first  flight. 
The  specimen  was  one  of  the  net-building  species,  Hydrop- 
syche  (Hy-drop-sy'che),  which  I  was  breeding  in  an  aquarium 
in  my  laboratory.  It  swam  to  the  surface  of  the  water 
repeatedly,  using  its  long  middle  legs.  When  swimming, 


190  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

these  legs  were  extended  at  right  angles  to  the  body  like  a 
pair  of  oars.  The  insect  was  unable  to  crawl  up  the  vertical 
side  of  the  aquarium,  and  after  clinging  to  it  for  a  short  time 
it  would  lose  its  hold  and  sink  back  to  the  bottom.  After 
watching  it  for  a  time  I  lifted  it  from  the  water  by  means  of 
a  stick.  At  this  time  its  wings  were  in  the  form  of  pads, 
which  were  but  little,  if  any,  longer  than  the  wing-pads  of 
the  pupa,  as  shown  by  the  cast  pupa-skin  found  floating  on 
the  water.  The  instant  the  creature  was  free  from  the  water 
its  wings  expanded  to  their  full  size,  and  immediately  it  flew 
away  several  feet.  In  my  efforts  to  catch  the  insect  I  found 
that  it  had  perfect  use  of  its  wings,  although  they  were  so 
recently  expanded.  The  time  required  for  the  insect  to 
expands  its  wings  and  take  its  first  flight  was  scarcely  more 
than  one  second  ;  it  was  certainly  less  than  two.  As  these 
insects  normally  emerge  from  rapidly-flowing  streams  which 
dash  over  rocks,  it  is  evident  that  if  much  time  were  required 
for  the  wings  to  become  fit  for  use,  as  is  the  case  with  most 
other  insects,  the  wave  succeeding  that  which  swept  one  from 
the  water  would  sweep  it  back  again  and  destroy  it. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

Order  LEPIDOPTERA  (Lep-i-dop'te-ra). 

The  Moths  or  Millers,  the  Skippers,  and  the  Butterflies. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings ;  these  are 
membranous,  and  covered  with  overlapping  scales.  The  month- 
parts  are  formed  for  sucking.  The  metamorphosis  is  complete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is  from  two  Greek  words :  lepis, 
a  scale ;  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the  fact  that  the 
wings  of  these  insects  are  covered  with  scales.  Every  lad 
that  lives  in  the  country  knows  that  the  wings  of  moths  and 
butterflies  are  covered  with  dust,  which  comes  off  upon  one's 
fingers  when  these  insects  are  handled.  This  dust  when 
examined  with  a  microscope  is  found  to  be  composed  of  very 
minute  scales  of  regular  form  ;  and  when  a  wing  is  looked  at 
in  the  same  way,  the  scales  are  seen  arranged  with  more  or 
less  regularity  upon  it.  The  body,  the  legs,  and  other 
appendages  are  also  covered  with  scales. 

The  scales  of  Lepidoptera  are  modified  hairs.  That  is, 
they  are  hairs  which,  instead  of  growing  long  and  slender  as 
hairs  usually  do,  remain  short,  but  grow  very  wide  as  com- 
pared with  their  length.  Every  gradation  in  form  can  be 
found  from  the  ordinary  hair-like  form,  which  occurs  most 
abundantly  upon  the  body,  to  the  short  and  broad  scale, 
which  is  best  seen  upon  the  wings. 

There  is  a  great  difference  among  the  insects  of  this  order 
regarding  the  regularity  of  the  arrangement  of  the  scales 

191 


192 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


upon  the  wings.  With  some  of  the  lower  moths  the  scales 
are  scattered  irregularly  over 
the  wings.  But  if  the  wing  of 
one  of  the  higher  butterflies  be 
examined  with  a  microscope, 
the  scales  will  be  found  arranged 
in  regular,  overlapping  rows; 
the  arrangement  being  as  reg- 
ular as  that  of  the  scales  on  a 
fish  or  of  the  shingles  on  a  roof 
(Fig.  231).  In  the  upper  part 
of  the  figure  the  membrane  is 
represented  with  the  scales  re- 
moved. 

The  use  of  the  scales  on  the  wings  is  to  strengthen  them. 
We  thus  see  that  the  wings  of  these  insects  are  furnished 
with  much  fewer  cross  veins  than  are  the  wings  of  similar 
size  in  other  orders.  A  secondary  use  of  these  scales  is  that 
of  ornamentation  ;  for  the  beautiful  colors  and  markings  of 
these  insects  are  due  entirely  to  the  scales,  and  are  destroyed 
when  the  scales  are  removed.  Upon  the  body,  legs,  and 


FIG.  231.— Part  of  wing  of  butterfly, 
greatly  magnified. 


FIG.  232.— Maxillae  of  cotton-moth,  and  tip  of  same  enlarged 

other  appendages,  the  scales  and  hairs  doubtless  serve  to 
protect  the  insect,  being  a  sort  of  armor. 

The  mouth-parts  of  moths  and  butterflies  are  especially 
adapted  for  sucking  nectar  from  flowers.  If  the  head  of  a 
butterfly  be  examined,  there  will  be  found  a  long  sucking 


LEffDOPTERA. 


193 


tube,  which  when  not  in  use  is  coiled  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  head  between  two  forward-projecting  appendages.  This 
long  sucking  tube  is  composed  of  the  two  maxillae,  greatly 
elongated,  and  fastened  together  side  by  side.  In  Figure  232 
there  is  represented  a  side  view  of  the  maxillae  of  a  moth ; 
and  in  Figure  233  a  cross-section  of  these  organs.  Each 


FIG.  233. — Cross-section  of  maxillae. 

maxilla  is  furnished  with  a  groove,  and  the  two  maxillae  are 
so  fastened  together  that  the  two  grooves  form  a  tube  through 
which  the  liquid  food  is  sucked.  As  a  rule  the  maxillae  of 
insects  of  this  order  are  merely  fitted  for  extracting  the 
nectar  from  flowers,  but  sometimes  the  tips  of  the  maxillae 
are  armed  with  spines,  as  shown  in  Figure  232.  This  enables 
the  insect  to  lacerate  the  tissue  of  ripe  fruits  and  thus  set 
free  the  juice,  which  is  then  sucked  up.  Many  moths  do  not 
eat  in  the  adult  state ;  with  these  the  maxillae  are  wanting. 
The  two  forward -projecting  organs  between  which  the 
maxillae  are  coiled  when  present  are  the  labial  palpi.  In 
some  moths  the  maxillary  palpi  are  also  developed. 

The  larvae  of  Lepidoptera  are  known  as  caterpillars. 
They  vary  greatly  in  form  and  appearance  ;  but  are  usually 
cylindrical,  and  provided  with  from  eight  to  sixteen  legs, — 
six  thoracic  legs,  and  from  two  to  ten  abdominal  legs.  The 
thoracic  legs,  which  are  finally  developed  into  the  legs  of  the 
adult,  have  a  hard  external  skeleton ;  and  are  jointed,  taper- 
ing, and  armed  at  the  end  with  a  little  claw.  The  abdominal 
legs,  which  are  shed  with  the  last  larval  skin,  are  thick, 


194 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


fleshy,  without  joints,  elastic  or  contractile,  and  are  generally 
surrounded  at  the  extremity  by  numerous,  minute  hooks 
(Fig.  234) ;  they  are  termed  pro-legs. 


FIG.  234. — Larva  of  a  Hawk-moth. 


Most  caterpillars,  except  the  larvae  of  butterflies,  spin 
cocoons  (Fig.  235).     In  some  instances,  as  in  case  of  the 


FIG.  235.-Cocoon  of  a  moth. 

silkworms,  a  great  amount  of  silk  is  used  in  the  construction 
cocoon;  in  others  the  cocoon  is  composed  principally 


LEPIDOPTERA.  195 

of  the  hairs  of  the  larva,  which  are  fastened  together  with  a 
fine  web  of  silk. 

In  the  pupae  of  Lepidoptera  the  developing  wings  and 
legs  are  folded  upon  the  sides  and  breast ;  the  whole  being 
enclosed  in  a  hard  skin  (Fig. 
236). 

The  members  of  this  order 
as  a  rule  feed  upon  plants,  and 
are  not  aquatic  ;  some,  as  the 
Clothes-moth  and  the  species 
that  destroy  Scale-bugs,  feed  FlG-  ^.-Pupa  of  a  moth, 

on  animal  matter,  and.  a  very  few  feed  upon  plants  below 
the  surface  of  the  water. 

More  than  six  thousand  species  of  Lepidoptera  are 
known  to  occur  in  America,  north  of  Mexico.  These  rep- 
resent more  than  sixty  families. 

In  order  to  give  a  synopsis  of  the  Lepidoptera  it  is 
necessary  to  enter  into  rather  difficult  technical  details. 
Hence  this  is  done  in  that  portion  of  this  chapter  designed 
for  advanced  students  and  printed  in  fine  type.  The  prin- 
cipal divisions  of  the  Lepidoptera  that  are  appropriately 
discussed  here  are  three :  the  moths,  the  skippers,  and  the 
butterflies : — 

The  Moths.  —  These  are  the  insects  commonly  called 
millers.  Most  of  the  species  fly  by  night  and  are  frequently 
attracted  to  lights.  When  at  rest  the  wings  are  either 
wrapped  around  the  body,  or  are  spread  horizontally,  or  are 
folded  roof-like  on  the  abdomen ;  they  are  not  held  in  a 
vertical  position  above  the  body.  The  antennae  of  moths 
are  of  various  forms  ;  they  are  usually  thread-like  or  feather- 
like  ;  only  in  rare  cases  are  they  enlarged  towards  the  tip. 
The  moths  include  all  but  the  last  six  families  of  Lepidop- 
tera. 

The  Skippers.— The  skippers  are  so  called  on  account  of 
their  peculiar  mode  of  flight.  They  fly  in  the  daytime  and 
dart  suddenly  from  place  to  place.  When  at  rest  they 


I96  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

usually  hold  the  wings  erect  in  a  vertical  position  like 
butterflies;  often  the  fore  wings  are  thus  held  while  the 
hind  wings  are  extended  horizontally.  The  antennae  are 
thread-like,  and  enlarged  towards  the  tip ;  but  in  most  cases 
the  extreme  tip  is  pointed  and  recurved,  forming  a  hook. 
The  abdomen  is  usually  stout,  resembling  that  of  a  moth 
rather  than  that  of  a  butterfly.  This  division  includes  two 
families. 

The  Butterflies. — The  butterflies  fly  by  day ;  and  when 
at  rest  they  fold  the  wings  together  above  the  back  in  a 
vertical  position.  The  antennae  are  thread-like  with  a  club 
at  the  tip,  which  is  ng^er  recurved  so  as  to  form  a  hook. 
The  abdomen  is  slender.  This  division  includes  the  last 
four  families  described  in  this  chapter. 

Classification  of  the  Lepidoptera. 

(For  Advanced  Students.) 

The  study  of  the  classification  of  the  Lepidoptera  is  beset  by  a 
peculiar  difficulty.  As  these  insects  are  clothed  with  scales  com-- 
paratively  little  of  their  structure  can  be  examined  without  injury  to 
the  specimens  studied.  Fortunately,  however,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  various  modifications  of  the  framework  of  the  wings  afford 
excellent  clues  to  the  relationships  of  the  different  groups ;  and  these 
modifications  can  be  determined  in  most  cases  without  serious  injury 
to  the  specimens.  The  structure  of  the  antennae  also  can  be  easily 
studied,  and  in  many  cases  affords  much  help  in  determining  the  zoo- 
logical position  of  an  insect. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  the  study  of  the  classification  of 
these  insects  is  to  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  nomenclature 
of  the  wing  veins ;  this  is  given  on  pages  64  to  66.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  take  several  of  the  larger  moths  and  butterflies  and  make  draw- 
ings showing  the  courses  of  the  Veins  of  the  wings  in  each,  carefully 
indicating  the  names  or  numbers  of  the  veins  on  the  drawings. 
The  making  of  such  drawings  will  be  of  much  use  in  fixing  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  veins  in  the  student's  mind.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  veins  IV  and  VI  are  not  developed  in  this  order. 

As  the  scales  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  wings  are  more  closely 
applied  to  the  wings  than  are  those  on  the  upper  surface,  the  veins 
can  be  best  seen  when  the  wings  are  examined  from  below.  The 


LEPIDOP  TERA .  1 97 

veins  can  be  rendered  more  distinct  for  a  few  seconds  by  putting  a 
drop  of  chloroform  on  the  part  of  the  wing  to  be  examined  ;  this  can 
be  easily  done  by  means  of  a  camel's-hair  brush. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  scales  from  a  small  part 
of  the  wing  in  order  to  determine  the  nature  of  some  characteristic; 
this  can  be  easily  done  with  an  artist's  sabie  brush.  A  very  small 
brush  is  best  for  this  purpose ;  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  break 
the  wing. 

The  above  methods  are  all  that  are  needed  in  the  majority  of 
cases  where  the  mere  determination  of  an  insect  is  the  object.  But 
when  a  very  careful  study  of  the  venation  of  a  wing  is  to  be  made, 
it  should  be  bleached  and  mounted  on  a  card  or  on  a  glass  slip  in 
order  that  it  may  be  studied  with  a  compound  microscope.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  method  of  bleaching  wings  : — 

1.  Remove  the  wings  carefully  so  as  not  to  break  the  frenulum  if 
there  be  one;  it  is  well  to  remove  the  patagium  first. 

2.  Dip  the  wings  in  alcohol  in  order  to  wet  them. 

3.  Immerse  them  for  an  instant  in  hydrochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid). 
Use  for  this  purpose  dilute  acid,  one  part  acid  to  nine  parts  water. 

4.  Put  them  in  Labaraque  solution  with  the  upper  surface  of  the 
wings  down,  and  leave  there  till  the  color  has  been  removed  from  the 
scales.     If  a  wing  bleaches  slowly,  the  process  can  be  hastened  by 
dipping  it  in   the    dilute  acid  and    returning   it  to  the   Labaraque 
solution  from  time  to  time.     This  solution  can  be  procured  of  most 
druggists.     It  deteriorates  if  left  exposed  in  strong  sunlight.     If  it 
cannot  be  obtained,  use  an  aqueous  solution  of  chloride  of  lime. 

5.  When  a  wing  is  bleached  put  it  in  alcohol  and  leave  it  there  till 
after  it   floats.     This  is  to  wash  off  the  Labaraque  solution.     The 
wing  can  then  be  mounted  on  a  card.     But  it  is  better  to  mount  it  as 
described  below. 

6.  Transfer  the  wing  to  a  clearing  mixture,  if  it  is  to  be  mounted 
in  balsam,  and  leave  it  there  five  or  ten  minutes.     This  is  to  remove 
any  water  there  may  be  on  it.     A  good  clearing  mixture  can  be  made 
by  mixing  two  parts  by  weight  of  carbolic:acid  crystals  and  three 
parts  of  rectified  oil  of  turpentine. 

7.  Put  the  wing  on  a  glass  slip  with  considerable  clearing  mixture 
under  it  to  avoid  bubbles ;  put  Canada  balsam  on  top,  and  cover  with 
thin  glass.     In  the  case  of  small  wings,  it  is  best  to  transfer  them 
from  one  solution  to  another,  and  to  the  glass  slip  by  means  of  a 
camel's-hair  brush. 

Wings  bleached  and  mounted  in  this  way  make  an  important  i 
dition  to  a  collection.     The  slides  should  be  carefully  labelled  ;  and 


198 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


the  insect  from  which  the  wings  were  taken  should  be  kept  with  the 
slide.  It  is  our  practice  to  remove  always  the  wings  from  the  right 
side,  and  then  to  mount  the  slide  in  the  collection  at  the  right  of  the 
insect  from  which  the  wings  were  taken.  Uniformity  in  this  respect 
adds  greatly  to  the  appearance  of  the  collection. 

The  student  should 
study  his  larger  speci- 
mens first,  leaving  the 
5  smaller  ones  till  he  has 
acquired  skill  in  this 
work. 

There  are  a  few  spe- 
cial terms  used  in  de- 
scribing the  wings  of 
the  Lepidoptera  which 
should  be  learned: — 

Frenulum. — In  most 
moths  there  is  a  strong 
spine  or  a  bunch  of 
bristles  borne  by  the 
hind  wing  at  the  hume- 
ral angle  (Fig.  237,  /); 
this  is  the  frenulum. 
Its  use  is  to  insure  the  acting  together  of  the  two  wings  of  one 
side.  Except  in  the  Microlepidoptera  the  frenulum  of  the  male 
consists  of  a  single  strong  spine; 
that  of  the  female  of  two  or 
more  bristles. 

Jugum.— In  one  suborder, 
including  only  a  few  rare  moths,  ^ 
there  exists,  instead  of  a  fren- 
ulum, a  lobe  borne  near  the 
base  of  the  inner  margin  of  the 
fore  wing  (Fig.  238,7);  this 
is  the  jugum.  See  sub-order 
Jugatae. 

Discal  Cell.— Near  the  cen- 
tre of  the  basal  part  of   the  VH,  VH, 
wing  there  is  a  large  cell  lying        FlG-  238.— Wings  of  Hepiaius gradlis. 
between  veins  III  and  VII  (Fig.  239,  d.c.);  this  is  the  discal  cell, 
re  generalized  Lepidoptera  this  cell  is  divided  into  two 
by  the  base  of  vein  V  (Fig.  239,  hind  wing);  in  such  cases  the 


LEP1DOPTERA. 


199 


"  JHiJ5!llnJ 

im 


cell  lying  immediately  behind  vein   III  is  cell  III,  and  that  lying 
immediately  behind  vein  V  is  cell  V. 

Accessory  Cells.— In  many  genera  the  branches  of  vein  III  of  the 
fore  wings  anastomose 
so  as  to  form  one  or 
more  cells  beyond  the 
apex  of  the  discal  cells 
(Fig.  239,  a.c.)\  these 
are  the  accessory  cells. 

Discal  Vein.  —  The 
cross  vein  at  the  outer 
end  of  the  discal  cell  is 
termed  the  discal  vein 
(Fig.  239,  d.v.). 

Patagia.  —  At  the 
base  of  each  fore  wing 
there  is  a  scale-like  ap- 
pendage; these  are  the 
patagia.  The  paiagia 
correspond  to  the  tegulae 
of  the  Hymenoptera  and 
the  elytra  of  the  Cole- 
optera. 

In     descriptions    of 


FIG.  239.— Wings  of  Notolophi 


Lepidoptera  reference  is 

often  made  to  the  palpi. 

These  form  the  double  beak-like  projection  which  extends  forward 

from  the  lower  surface  of  the  head.     In  most  Lepidoptera  only  the 

labial  palpi  are  well  developed ;  but  in  some  of  the  more  generalized 

forms  the  maxillary  palpi  are  also  present. 

The  presence  or  absence  of  ocelli 
is  a  character  which  is  sometimes  of 
considerable  importance.  These  or- 
gans are  situated,  one  on  each  side, 
above  the  compound  eye  and  near  its 
margin  (Fig.  240).  But  it  requires  some 

24°posiUon  of  ocellus.8  °     *   skill  to  find  them  when  they  are  present, 
on  account  of  the  long  scales  clothing  the  head. 

The  Phylogeny  of  the  Lepidoptera. — Since  the  general  acceptance 
of  the  theory  of  evolution — that  is,  the  theory  that  the  higher  animals 
and  plants  have  been  developed  from  lower  ones— it  has  become  evi- 
dent that  the  only  sure  basis  for  classification  is  a  knowledge  of  the 


20O  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

history  of  the  various  races  of  animals  and  plants,  or  phylogeny  (phy- 
log'e-ny),  as  it  is  termed. 

The  scope  of  this  book  has  not  permitted  an  extended  treatment 
of  this  phase  of  the  subject.  There  is  space  for  only  a  few  hints  re- 
garding the  phylogeny  of  the  families  of  a  single  order;  but  these 
hints  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  a  method  of  study.  The  Lepi- 
doptera  is  chosen  for  this  purpose,  as  the  method  has  been  applied  to 
this  order  more  fully  than  it  has  to  others. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  every  kind  of  animal  and  plant  trans- 
mits a  general  likeness  with  individual  differences  to  its  offspring. 

According  to  the  Darwinian  theory  of  natural  selection  these  dif- 
ferences or  variations  may  be  of  any  kind  and  in  any  direction.  And 
as  many  more  animals  are  born  or  plants  germinated  than  can  live  to 
reach  maturity,  owing  to  the  tendency  of  each  kind  to  increase  in  a 
geometrical  ratio,  each  individual  is  subjected  to  a  severe  struggle  for 
existence. 

The  result  of  this  struggle  is  that  any  individual  possessing  a  for- 
tunate variation — that  is,  one  that  enables  it  to  get  its  living  and 
escape  its  dangers  more  easily  than  its  fellows — will  be  more  apt  on 
this  account  to  reach  maturity  and  propagate  its  kind  than  will  less 
fortunate  individuals.  Thus  there  is  a  thinning-out  process  which 
tends  to  the  production  of  more  and  more  specialized  forms  of  animals 
and  plants,  i.e.,  forms  adapted  to  the  special  conditions  under  which 
they  exist. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  difficulties  surrounding  exist- 
ence may  be  met  in  different  ways;  and  that  thus  there  may  have 
descended  from  a  common  ancestor  very  different  forms,  each  well 
fitted  to  meet  the  struggle  for  existence.  See  Chapter  I,  pp.  r  and  2. 
Just  what  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  structure  of  the  mem- 
bers of  any  race  is  a  difficult  matter  to  determine,  for,  although  many 
fossils  have  been  found,  the  record  is  still  very  incomplete.  But  for- 
tunately something  can  be  learned  regarding  this  by  the  study  of 
living  animals.  For  not  all  members  of  the  same  family,  or  order,  or 
class  are  equally  specialized.  Some  retain  more  nearly  than  others 
the  form  of  their  remote  ancestors ;  and  by  the  study  of  these  general- 
ized forms,  as  they  are  termed,  we  can  gain  some  idea  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  animals  of  past  ages,  and  of  the  ways  in  which  existing 
animals  have  been  modified. 

We  will  state  very  briefly  some  of  the  conclusions  that  we  have 
d  regarding  the  phylogeny  of  the  families  of  the  Lepidoptera. 
These  conclusions  are  based  largely  on  a  study  of  the  wings.     It  is 
hoped  that  other  parts  will  be  studied  in  the  same  way  ere  long 


LEP1DOPTERA. 


201 


In  the  flight  of  insects  it  is  important  that  the  two  wings  of  each 
side  should  act  together,  and  we  find  that  this  is  secured  in  most 
orders  by  uniting  them  in  some  way.  In  the  Lepidoptera  two  dis- 
tinct methods  are  employed  ;  in  some  it  is  done  by  means  of  a.  jugum, 
in  others  by  means  of  a  frenulum  or  its  substitute.  As  neither  the 
jugum  nor  the  frenulum  could  be  derived  from  the  other,  we  infer 
that  the  primitive  Lepidoptera  possessed  neither  of  these  organs,  but 
had  wings  that  were  quite  distinct  from  each  other.  In  the  course  of 
time  there  was  developed  in  some  of  the  descendants  of  these  primi- 
tive forms  a  jugum  ;  while  in  others  there  was  developed  a  frenulum. 
Of  course  in  each  case  the  development  was  a  gradual  one,  extending 
through  many  generations.  Thus  the  frenulum  at  first  was  probably 
merely  a  bunch  of  hairs  like 
those  elsewhere  on  the  wings; 
but  these  became  stiffer  and 
stiffer  in  succeeding  genera- 
tions. 

The  descendants  of  those 
ancient  Lepidoptera  in  which  a 
jugum  was  developed  constitute 

the  suborder  Jugatce  ;  while  the 

descendants  of  those  in  which 

a  frenulum  was  developed  con- 
stitute the  suborder  Frenatcz. 
We  know  but   little  of   the 

Jugatae,  as   nearly  all  of  them 

have    perished.     There  remain 

only    two    small    families,   the 

Hepialidse  and  the  Microptery- 

gidae.      But   these   families  are 

very  widely  separated,  and  hence 

it  is  safe  to  assume  that  they  are 

the   remnants   of  what  was   in 

past  times  a  large  fauna. 

In    the    Frenatae,    however,  FlG  24,  _ wings  of  Anaaandria. 

there  exist  to-day  many  families, 

each  exhibiting  its  own  methods  of  specialization. 

In  some  of  these  families  the  frenulum  has  been  preserved  and 

perfected  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.     But  in  others  a  curious  change 

has  taken  place. 

It  is  obvious  that  if  the  two  wings  of  each  side  overlap  to  a  gi 

extent,  their  acting  together  will  be  assured  by  this  fact.     And  this  is 


202 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


what  has  taken  place  with  the  butterflies,  the  skippers,  and  certain 
moths  With  these  insects  the  humeral  angle  of  the  hind  wing  has 
been  greatly  enlarged,  so  that  it  projects  far  beneath  the  fore  wing 
(Fig  241).  When  this  has  taken  place  there  is  no  longer  any  need 
of  a  frenulum,  and  consequently  this  organ  is  no  longer  preserved  by 
natural  selection.  We  find,  therefore,  that  several  families  of  Lepi- 
doptera  that  belong  to  the  suborder  Frenatse,  being  descendants  of 


VIII 
FIG.  242. — Wings  of  Bombyx  mori, 

ancient  frenulum-bearing  moths,  no  longer  possess  a  frenulum. 
These  are  classed  in  the  following  synopsis  as  the  frenulum-losers. 
It  is  a  very  interesting  fact,  and  one  that  bears  out  the  theory 
just  stated,  that  in  the  more  generalized  of  the  frenulum-losing 
moths,  as  the  Bombycidse,  the  frenulum  has  not  yet  entirely  dis- 
appeared, but  is  preserved  in  a  rudimentary  state  (Fig.  242).  We 
place  the  frenulum-losers  last  in  a  serial  arrangement  of  the  fami- 


LEPIDOP  TERA .  203 

lies  of  Lepidoptera,  regarding  them  as  those  that  depart  most  widely 
from  the  primitive  type. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  a  study  of  the  relation  to 
each  other  of  the  fore  and  hind  wings  gives  us  important  hints  as  to 
the  probable  courses  development  has  taken  in  the  different  families. 
Equally  suggestive  hints  may  be  derived  from  a  study  of  the  venation 
of  the  wings. 

By  an  extended  study  of  fossil  forms  and  the  more  generalized  of 
living  forms,  the  details  of  which  study  cannot  be  given  here,*  rt  haa 
been  determined  that  in  the  primitive  Lepidoptera  vein  V  of  both 
fore  and  hind  wings  was  well  developed,  and  extended  from  the  base 
of  the  wing  out  through  the  discal  cell.  We  find  that  in  certain 
families  of  existing  moths  this  vein  is  still  preserved  (see  p.  65), 
while  in  others  it  has  been  lost.  Those  families  of  the  Frenatae  in 
which  it  is  best  and  most  uniformly  preserved  are  grouped  together 
as  the  Generalized  Frenatce  (see  the  following  synopsis),  while  those 
in  which  it  is  lost  or  nearly  so  are  considered  more  specialized. 

With  the  loss  of  the  base  of  vein  V  there  occurs  a  connection  of 
its  branches  with  veins  III  and  VII,  so  that  in  the  more  specialized 
forms  these  branches  of  vein  V  appear  to  be  branches  of  those  veins 
(Fig.  241).  A  study  of  the  extent  to  which  this  change  has  gone 
gives  much  aid  in  determining  the  zoological  position  of  the  different 
genera  and  families.  In  certain  families  vein  V2  tends  to  become 
united  to  vein  III ;  in  others  it  tends  to  become  united  to  vein  VII. 
This  too  is  anf  important  character,  of  which  use  is  made  in  the 
following  synopsis. 

The  number  of  anal  veins  is  another  character  the  study  of  which 
throws  much  light  on  the  relative  position  of  the  different  forms.  It 
has  been  determined  that  the  ancient  Lepidoptera  had  at  least  three 
anal  veins  in  both  fore  and  hind  wings.  This  number  has  been  pre- 
served in  one  or  both  pairs  of  wings  of  the  more  generalized  of  living 
moths,  but  has  been  reduced  to  two  or  even  to  one  in  the  more 
specialized  families. 

Enough  has  been  said,  without  going  into. further  details  here,  to 
show  that  the  way  to  determine  the  relationships  of  organized  beings 
is  to  determine  the  primitive  form  of  their  organs  and  the  changes 
that  have  been  brought  about  in  these  organs  by  the  action  of  natural 

*  The  data  upon  which  these  conclusions  are  based  are  given  at  greater 
length  in  an  essay,  by  the  senior  author,  entitled  Evolution  and  Taxonomy. 
This  essay  forms  a  part  of  the  Wilder  Quarter-Century  Book,  publis 
the  Comstock  Publishing  Company,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


204  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

selection.  The  classification  of  animals  and  plants  should  not  be 
merely  the  assorting  of  them  into  convenient  pigeon-holes,  but 
a  serious  study  of  their  blood-relationships. 

The  following  synopsis  will  serve  to  show  what  we  believe  to  be 
the  relations  of  the  principal  divisions  of  the  order.  Following  this 
synopsis  there  is  a  table  for  use  in  classifying  specimens. 


SYNOPSIS   OF   THE    LEPIDOPTERA. 

(See  page  207  for  a  table  for  determining  specimens.') 

A.  THE  JUGATE  LEPIDOPTERA. — Moths  in  which  the  two  wings  of 
each  side  are  united  by  &jugnm  (Fig.  238, /),  p.  214. 

Suborder  JUGAT/E. 

B.  The  Swifts  or  Macrojugatce,  p.  215 Family  HEPIALID/E. 

BB.  The  Little-wing  Jugates  or  Microjugatce,  p.  216. 

Family  MICROPTERYGID^E. 

AA.  THE  FRENATE  LEPIDOPTERA.— Moths,  skippers,  and  butterflies 
in  which  the  two  wings  of  each  side  are  united  by  Sifrenitlum  (Fig. 
237. /)  or  by  its  substitute,  a  large  humeral  angle  of  the  hind  wing 

(Fig.  241),  p.  216 Suborder  FRENAT^E. 

B.  THE  GENERALIZED  FRENAT^E. — Moths  that  are  supposed  to 
retain  more  nearly  than  any  other  Frenatse  the  form  of  the  primi- 
tive Frenatae,  those  that  were  the  first  to  appear  on  earth.  In 
these  generalized  moths  the  wings  approach  the"'  typical  form ; 
the  base  of  vein  V  of  one  or  both  pairs  of  wings  is  preserved 
throughout  a  considerable  part  at  least  of  the  discal  cell ;  and 
the  anal  veins  are  well  preserved,  there  being  two  or  three  in 
the  fore  wing  and  three  in  the  hind  wing.  The  frenulum  is 
usually  well  preserved. 

The  Flannel-moths,  p.  218 Family  MEGALOPYGID^E. 

The  Bag-worm  Moths,  p.  219 Family  PSYCHID^E. 

Carpenter-moths,  p.  221 Family  COSSID^E. 

The  Slug-caterpillar  Moths,  p.  223 Family  EUCLEID^E. 

The  Smoky-moths,  p.  226 Family  PYROMORPHID^. 

THE  SPECIALIZED  FRENATAJ.— Moths,  skippers,  and  butter- 
that  depart  more  widely  than  do  the  Generalized  Prenatal 
3m  the  primitive  type  of  Lepidoptera,  being  more  highly  modi- 
>r  special  conditions  of  existence.     An  indication  of  the 
iciahzed  condition  of  these  insects  is  the  modified  form  of  the 
In  nearly  all  the  base  of  vein  V  has  been  lost  and  the 
branches  of  this  vein  joined  to  veins  III  and  VII. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  205 

C.  THE  MICRO  FRENAIVE. — Frenulum-bearing  moths,  which  are 
usually  of  small,  often  minute,  size.  The  anal  area  of  the  hind 
wings  is  not  reduced,  having  usually  three  anal  veins  except  in 
certain  minute  forms  where  a  broad  fringe  has  been  substituted 
for  the  membrane  of  this  area. 

The  Pyralids,  p.  228 Superfamily  PYRALIDINA. 

The  Tortricids,  p.  239 Superfamily  TORTRICINA. 

The  Tineids,  p.  246 Superfamily  TINEINA. 

The  Clear-winged  Moths,  p.  259 Family  SESIID/E. 

CC.  THE  SPECIALIZED  MACROFRENAT^E.— Specialized  Frenatae 
which  are  usually  of  medium  or  large  size.  This  division 
includes  certain  moths  and  all  skippers  and  butterflies.  In 
these  insects  the  anal  area  of  the  hind  wing  is  reduced,  con- 
taining only  one  or  two  anal  veins. 

D.  The  Frenulum-conservers. — Specialized  Macrofrenatae  in 
which  the  two  wings  of  each  side  are  united  by  a  frenulum. 
This  group  includes  only  moths. 

E.  Moths  that  appear  to  have  a  three- branched  cubitus,  only 
vein  V»  being  closely  connected  with  vein  VII.  Vein  V« 
either  retains  its  primitive  position  midway  between  veins 
III  and  VII  or  arises  from  the  discal  vein  nearer  to  vein 
III  than  to  vein  VII  * 

The  Dioptids,  p.  262 Family  DIOPTID*:. 

The  Prominents,  p.  263 Family  NOTODONTIDJE. 

The  Measuring-worm  Moths,  p.  270. 

Superfamily  GEOMETRINA. 

EE.  Moths  that  appear  to  have  a  four-branched  cubitus,  the 
base  of  vein  Va  of  one  or  both  pairs  of  wings  being  more 
closely  connected  with  vein  VII  than  with  vein  III. 
F.  Moths  in  which  the  humeral  angle  of  the  hind  wings 
is  greatly  extended,  but  which  as  a  rule  possess  the 
frenulum  in  one  sex  at  least. 

The  Auzatids,  p.  288 Family  AUZATID.*. 

The  Hook- tip  Moths,  p.  289. ..... .Family  DREPANIDVE. 

FF.  Moths  in  which  the  humeral  angle  of  the  hind  wings 
is  not  greatly  extended. 

G.   The  Noctuids  and  their  Allies.— Moths  in  which  some 
of  the  branches  of  vein  III  of  the  fore  wings  coalesce 
*  In  many  Hawk-moths'vehTv,  nearly  or  quite  retains  its  primitive 
position  ;  but  when  it  has  moved  from  this  position,  it  is  nearer  to  vein 
than  to  vein  III.     This  family  is  placed,  therefore,  in  the  next  d 
of  this  synopsis. 


206  THE  STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 

beyond  the  discal  cell,  and  which  do  not  have  what 
appears  to  be  a  cross  vein  between  veins  II  and  III  of 
the  hind  wings. 
The  Cymatophorids,  p.  291  .Family  CYMATOPHORID^E. 

The  Owlet-moths,  p.  293 Family  NOCTUIDJE. 

The  Tussock-moths,  p.  308 Family  LYMANTRIID./E. 

The  Wood-nymph  Moths,  p.  313. Family  AGARISTID/E. 

The  Pericopids,  p.  316 Family  PERICOPID^E. 

The  Tiger-moths,  p.  317 Family  ARCTIID^:. 

The  Footman-moths,  p.  324 Family  LITHOSIID^;. 

The  Zygaenids,  p.  326 Family  ZYG^NlDiE. 

GG.  The  Window-winged  Moths.— Moths  in  which  vein 
III  of  the  fore  wings  is  five-branched  and  in  which  all  of 
these  branches  arise  from  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  404),  p. 

328 Family  THYRIDID^E. 

GGG.  The  Hawk-moths. — Moths  in  which  there  appears 
to  be  a  cross  vein  between  veins  II  and  III  of  the  hind 

wings  (Fig.  407),  p.  329 Family  SPHINGID^E. 

DD.  The Frenulum-losers.  —Specialized  Macrofrenatae,  in  which 
the  frenulum  has  been  supplanted  by  a  greatly  extended 
humeral  area  of  the  hind  wings.  In  some  of  the  more  gen- 
eralized forms  a  rudimentary  frenulum  persists  (Bornbycidae 
and  Lacosomidae).  This  division  includes  three  groups  of 
families:  the  Frenulum-losing  Moths,  the  Skippers,  and  the 
Butterflies.  The  grouping  together  of  the  families  included 
in  this  division  is  merely  provisional,  as  it  is  probable  that 
the  loss  of  the  frenulum  has  arisen  independently  in  several 
of  them. 

E.  The  Frenulum-losing  Moths. — In  these  moths  the  antennae 
are  usually  pectinate  ;  they  are  never  enlarged  into  a  club 
at  the  tip. 

F.  Moths  with  cubitus  of  the  fore  wings  apparently  three- 
branched. 

G.  Moths  in  which  veins  Ills  and  III4  coalesce  to  a  great 
extent.  The  Saturnians.  p.  339. 

Superfamily  SATURNIINA. 

GG.  Moths  in  which  veins  III,  and  III«  do  not  coalesce 

beyond  the  discal  cell.     p.  357.  .Family  LACOSOMIDJE. 

FF.  Moths  in  which  cubitus  of  the  fore  wings  is  apparently 

four-branched,     p.  359 Family  LASIOCAMPID^;. 

EE.  'The  Skippers. — These  are  day-flying  Lepidoptera  which 
resemble  butterflies  in  usually  holding  their  wings  erect 


LEPIDOPTERA.  2O/ 

when  at  rest,  but  are  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  venation 
of  the  fore  wings,  vein  III  being  five-branched,  and  all  the 
branches  arising  from  the  discal  cell.  The  antennae  are 
enlarged  into  a  club  towards  the  tip.  p.  364. 

Superfamily  HESPERIINA. 

EEE.  The  Butterflies.— Day-flying  Lepidoptera  that  hold 
their  wings  erect  when  at  rest,  that  have  clubbed  antennae, 
and  that  differ  from  the  Skippers  in  the  venation  of  the 
fore  wings,  some  of  the  branches  of  vein  III  coalescing 

beyond  the  discal  cell Superfamily  PAPILIONINA. 

F.  Butterflies    in    which    vein    VII    is    apparently    four- 
branched.     The  Swallow-tail  Butterflies,     p.  375. 

Family  PAPILIONID/E. 

FF.  Butterflies   in    which   vein  VII  is  apparently  three- 
branched. 

G.  Butterflies  exhibiting  no  tendency  to  abortion  of  the 
fore  legs. 

The  Pierids.     p.  381 Family  PIERID^E. 

GG.  Butterflies  exhibiting  a  marked  tendency  to  abor- 
tion of  the  fore  legs. 
The  Gossamer-winged  Butterflies,     p.  388. 

Family  LYC;ENID/E. 
The  Brush-footed  Butterflies,    p.  395. 

Family  NYMPHALIDJE. 

TABLE   FOR    DETERMINING   THE   PRINCIPAL  GROUPS  OF 
LEPIDOPTERA. 

A.  Wingless  or  with  rudimentary  wings.    This  division  includes  only 
females.     All  males  of  Lepidoptera  are  winged. 
B.  The  larvae  case-bearers;  the  adult  female  remaining  within  the 

case  to  lay  her  eggs.    p.  219 PSYCHID^E. 

BB.  The  larvae  not  case-bearers ;  the  wingless  adult  not  in  a  case. 
C.  The  adult  remaining  upon  her  cocoon  to  lay  her  eggs;  the 
body  of  the  adult  clothed  with  fine  hairs,    p.  308. 

LYMANTRIID/E. 

CC.  The  adult  active,  laying  her  eggs  remote  from  her  cocoon; 
the  body  of  the  adult  clothed  with  flattened  scales,     p.  270. 

GEOMETRINA. 

AA.  Winged,  fore  and  hind  wings  similar  in  form  and  venation,  the 
radius  of  the  hind  wings  being,  like  that  of  the  fore  wings,  five- 
branched.  (Fig.  238.)  (Suborder  Jugate^  [See  also  A  A  A.] 


208  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

B.  Moths  of  medium  or  large  size.    p.  215 HEPIALID^:. 

BB.  Minute  moths,  resembling  Tineids  in  appearance,     p.  214. 

MlCROPTERYGID^E. 

AAA.  Winged,  fore  and  hind  wings  differing  in  form  and  venation  ; 
the  radius  of  the  hind  wings  being  simple,  although  frequently 
apparently  two-  or  three-branched  ;  this  is  due  to  the  union  of  one 
or  two  branches  of  media  with  it  (Figs.  241,  242).  (Suborder 
Prenatal) 

B.  Antennae  of  various  forms,  but  never  thread-like  with  a  knob  at 
the  extremity*  (moths  in  part). 

C.  The  fringe  on  the  inner  angle  of  the  hind  wings  as  long  as,  or 
longer  than,  the  width  of  the  wing;    the  hind  wings  often 

lanceolate,  but  never  fissured,     p.  246 TINEINA. 

CC.  The  fringe  on  the  hind  wings  shorter ;  the  hind  wings  not 
lanceolate. 
D.  Wings  fissured. 

E.  Each  wing  divided  into  six  lobes,    p.  238.  ..ORNEODID^E. 

EE.  Wings  never   more   than   four-lobed ;   usually  the  fore 

wings  are  bilobed  and  the  hind  wings  trilobed.     p.  237. 

PTEROPHORIDA;. 
DD.  Wings  not  fissured. 

E.  Fore  wings  very  narrow,  the  width  at  the  middle  less 
than  one  fourth  the  length  of  the  wing ;  a  considerable  part 
of  the  hind  wings,  and  in  many  cases  of  the  fore  wings  also, 

free  from  scales,     p.  259 SESIID^. 

EE.  Wings  scaled  throughout,  or  if  clear  with  the  fore  wings 
triangular  in  outline. 

F.  Hind  wings  with  three  anal  veins.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  mistake  a  mere  fold  in  the  wing  for  a  vein.  When 
there  is  no  thickening  of  the  membrane  of  the  wing  along 
a  fold  it  is  not  counted  as  a  vein. 

G.  Subcosta  and  radius  of  the  hind  wings  grown  together 

for  a  greater  or  less  distance  between  the  apex  of  the 

discal  cell  and  the  apex  of  the  wing,  or  in  some  cases 

separate  but  very  closely  parallel,  p.  228..PYRALIDINA. 

GG.  Subcosta  and  radius  of  the  hind  wings  widely  sep- 

^ arate  beyond  the  apex  of  the  discal  cell. 

*  In  some  moths  the  antennae  are  enlarged  towards  the  tip,  forming  a 
more  or  less  distinct  club  ;  but  this  club  is  quite  different  in  shape  from  the 
knob  at  the  extremity  of  the  antennae  in  the  skippers  and  the  butterflies.  In 
the  moths  with  club-like  antennae  the  ocelli  are  usually  present,  and  the  hind 
wings  bear  a  frenulum. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  2<X) 

H.  Microlepidoptera ;  i.e.,  moths  that  are  in  most  cases 
of  small  or  minute  size  ;  with  those  included  here 
the  palpi  are  well  developed,  often  prominent — when 
the  palpi  are  not  prominent  the  antennae  are  at  least 
as  long  as  the  front  wings;  the  fringe  on  the  anal 
angle  of  the  hind  wings  is  considerably  longer  than 
elsewhere. 

I.  The  second  anal  vein  of  the  hind  wings  forked 
towards  the  base.    p.  239 TORTRICINA. 

II.  The  second   anal   vein  of  the  hind  wings  not 
forked  towards  the  base.    p.  246 TINEINA. 

HH.  Macrolepidoptera  ;  i.e.,  moths  usually  of  medium 
or  large  size.  With  those  included  here  the  palpi 
are  small,  rarely  projecting  beyond  the  head  ;  the 
antennae  are  of  moderate  length  ;  and  the  fringe  on 
the  anal  angle  of  the  hind  wing  is  not  Longer  than 
elsewhere,  or  but  slightly  so. 

I.  Subcosta  and  radius  of  hind  wings  grown  together 
to  near  the  end  of  the  discal  cell.     (Fig.  267.) 

J.  Small  black   moths,  with  thinly  scaled  wings. 

p.  226 PYROMORPHIDVE. 

JJ.   Moths  of  medium  size,  and   densely  clothed 

with  long  woolly  hairs,  which  are  light  colored 

or  brown.      p.  2l8    MEGALOPYGIDjE. 

II.  Subcosta  and  radius  of  hind  wings  distinct  or 
grown  together  for  only  a  short  distance. 

J.  Anal  veins  of  the  fore  wings  anastomosing  so 
as  to   appear   as  a  branched  vein   (Fig.   253). 

p.  2 19 PSYCHIDJE. 

JJ.  Anal  veins  of  fore  wings  not  forked  outwardly. 
K.  Vein  Va  of  the  fore  wings  arising  from  the 
discal  cell   nearly  midway  between  veins  V» 
and  V3. 

L.  Vein  V3  of  both  fore  and  hind  wings 
coalescing  with  vein  VIIi  for  a  considerable 
distance  beyond  the  end  of  the  discal  cell 

(Fig.  309).    p.  262 DIOPTID*:. 

LL.  Veins  V3  and  VII,  not  coalescing  beyond 
the  end  of  the  discal  cell. 
M.  Veins  Ills  and  IIIi  coalesced  at  base, 
but  separate  from  veins  III*  and   III». 


210  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

which  also  coalesce   (Fig.  438).    p.  357. 
LACOSOMIDJE. 

MM.    Veins  III.,  III.,  III«,  and  III.  united 

at  base  (Fig.  419).     p.  340.  .BoMBYCiD^E. 

KK.  Vein  V»  of  the  fore  wings  emerging  from 

the  discal  cell  nearer  to  cubitus  than  to  radius, 

causing  cubitus  to  appear  four-branched. 

L.  Fore  wings  with  an  accessory  cell  (Fig.  255); 

veins  lilt  and  III*  coalesced  at  base,  also 

veins   lilt  and  III&;   the  accessory  cell  is 

formed  by  the  anastomosing  of  veins  IIIi 

and  III44-5.     p.  221 COSSID/E. 

LL.  Fore  wings  without  an  accessory  cell; 
veins  III3  and  III4  coalescing  to  a  greater 
extent  than  any  other  branches  of  radius 

(Fig.  261,.     p.  223 EUCLEID^E. 

FF.  Hind  wings  with  less  than  three  anal  veins. 
G.  Fore  wings  with  two  distinct  anal  veins  or  with  the 
anal  veins  partially  grown  together  in  such  a  way  as 
to  appear  as  a  single  branched  vein. 
H.  Anal  veins  of  fore  wings  partially  grown  together 
so  as  to  appear  as  a  branched  vein  (Fig.  253).    p.  219 

PSYCHID,E. 

HH.  Fore  wings  with  two  distinct  anal  veins,    p.  226. 

PYROMORPHID^E. 

GG.  Fore  wings  with  a  single  fully  preserved  anal  vein. 
This  is  the  second  anal  vein  (vein  IX) ;  the  first  anal 
vein  (vein  VIII)  is  absent  or  represented  merely  by  a 
fold ;  and  the  third  anal  vein  (vein  XI)  is  short,  not 
reaching  to  the  margin  of  the  wing,  or  is  wanting; 
usually  when  the  third  anal  vein  is  present  it  is  joined 
to  the  second  anal  vein,  so  that  the  latter  appears  to 
be  forked  towards  the  base. 

H.  Frenulum   present.     In   most   cases   the  humeral 
angle  of  the  hind  wings  is  not  largely  expanded. 
I.  The  five  branches  of  radius  and  the  three  branches 
of  media  of  the  fore  wings  present,  and  each  one 
arising  from   the   discal   cell   (Fig.   404).     Small 
moths  (the  largest  expanding  only  three  fourths 
inch)  resembling  Hawk-moths  in  form,  and  with 
translucent  spots  on  their  wings,     p.  328. 

THYRIDID.E. 


LEPID  OP  TERA .  211 

II.  Some  of  the  branches  of  radius  or  of  media 
either  wanting  or  grown  together  beyond  the 
discal  cell. 

J.  Hind  wings  with  subcosta  and  radius  appar- 
ently distinct  but  connected  by  a  strong  oblique 
cross  vein  (Fig.  407).  Moths  of  medium  or 
large  size,  with  spindle-shaped  bodies,  narrow, 
strong  wings,  and  usually  with  the  antennae 
prismatic  in  form,  and  more  or  less  thickened 
in  the  middle  or  towards  the  tip,  which  is  fre- 
quently recurved  in  the  form  of  a  hook  (Hawk- 
moths),  p.  329 SPHINGID^E. 

JJ.  Subcosta  and  radius  of  hind  wings  either  dis- 
tinct or  grown  together ;  but  not  appearing  to 
be  connected  by  a  strong,  oblique  cross  vein. 
K.  Vein  Vj  of  the  fore  wings  not  more  closely 
joined  to  cubitus  than  to  radius,  cubitus  being 
apparently  three-branched. 
L.  The  basal  part  of  the  subcosta  of  the  hind 
wings  extending  from  the  base  towards  the 
apex  of  the  wing  in  a  regular  curve.     Moths 
resembling  Noctuids  in  form  ;  />.,  with  a 
large   abdomen   and   with    rather    narrow, 
strong,  and  coarsely-scaled  fore  wings. 
M.  Vein  Vs  of  the  hind  wings  arising  much 
nearer  to  cubitus  than  to  radius;  vein  Vi 
of  the  hind  wings  joined  to  radius  at  a 
considerable  distance  before  the  apex  of 
the  discal  cell  (Fig.  349).    p.  291. 

CYMATOPHORID.E. 

MM.  Vein  Vs  of  the  hind  wings  either 
wanting  or  present,  but  when  present 
arising  either  midway  between  radius 
and  cubitus.  or  nearer  to  radius  than  to 
cubitus;  vein  V,  of  the  hind  wings  joined 
to  radius  at  or  beyond  the  apex  of  the 
discal  cell  (Fig  311).  p.  263. 

NOTODONTID^. 

LL.  The  basal  part  of  the  subcosta  of  the 
hind  wings  joined  to  radius  for  a  consider- 
able distance  and  then  making  a  prominent 
bend  towards  the  costal  margin,  as  in  Cicirt- 


212  T3E   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


nus  (Fig.  438).    Veins  Ills  and  III4  of  the 
fore  wings  separate  from  each  other,    p.  357. 

[See  also  LLL.] LACOSOMID^E. 

LLL.  The  basal  part  of  the  subcosta  of  the 
hind  wings  making  a  prominent  bend  into 
the  humeral  angle  of  the  wing  (Fig.  327); 
veins  Ills  and  lilt  coalesced  to  near  the 
apex  of  the  wing.  In  most  cases,  moths 
with  a  slender  abdomen,  and  with  rather 
broad,  delicate  wings,  which  are  finely 

scaled,    p.  270 GEOMETRINA. 

KK.  Vein  Va  of  the   fore  wings  more  closely 
joined  to  cubitus  than  to  radius ;  cubitus  be- 
ing in  most  cases  apparently  four-branched. 
L.  Small  moths  with   the  apex  of  the  fore 
wings  sickle-shaped,     p.  289.  .DREPANID^E. 
LL.   Apex  of  the  fore  wings  not  sickle-shaped. 
M.  Small  moths  with  snow-white  wings,  in 
which  the  subcosta  of  the  hind  wings  ex- 
tends distinct  from  radius  to  a  point  be- 
yond the  discal  cell  where   the  two  are 
united  for  a  greater  or  less  distance  (Fig. 

344).    p.  288 AUZATID^E. 

MM.  The  subcosta  of  the  hind  wings  ex- 
tending distinct  from  the  radius,  or  the 
two  joined  for  a  very  short  distance,  near 
the  base  of  the  wing.     [See  also  MM M.J 
N.  Chiefly    day-flying    moths     that    are 
either  black  with  large,  white  or  yellow, 
rounded    patches   upon   the   wings,  or 
have  the  front  wings  white,  margined 
with  brown,  and  the  hind  wings  pale 
yellow. 

O.  Cubitus  of  hind   wings  apparently 
four-branched  (Fig.  384).    p.  316. 

PERICOPID^E. 

OO.  Cubitus  of  hind  wings  apparently 
three-branched  (Fig.  379).     p.  313. 

AGARISTIDJE. 

NN.  Not  such   moths  as  are  described 
under  N. 
O,  Antennae  pectinate. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  21$ 

P.  Ocelli  absent,  p.  308. 

LYMANTRIID>E. 

PP.  Ocelli  present,  p.  293  NOCTUID^E. 

OO.  Antennae  simple,  p.  293.  NOCTUID^E. 

MMM.  The   subcosta    of    the   hind   wings 

united  with  the  radius  for  a  considerable 

distance  (i.e.,  for  one  fifth  or  more  of  the 

length  of  the  discal  cell). 

N.  The  subcosta  and  radius  of  the  hind 

wings  united  for  a  considerable  distance, 

but  usually  separating  before  the  apex 

of  the  discal  cell. 

O.  Ocelli  present,  p.  317.  ..ARCTIIDJE. 
^  OO.  Ocelli  absent,  p.  324..LiTHOSHDyE. 
NN.  The  subcosta  and  radius  of  the  hind 
wings  united  into  a  single  vein  (Fig. 
399),  or  at  most  with  their  tips  separate 
near  the  apex  of  the  wing.  With  all 
the  moths  included  under  this  head 
and  under  the  preceding  N,  vein  V, 
of  the  hind  wings  is  present  and  is 
joined  to  radius  at  or  near  the  apex  of 
the  discal  cell ;  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  mistake  this  vein  V,  for  radius, 

p.  326 ZYG^NID^:. 

HH.  Frenulum  absent ;  the  humeral  angle  of  the  hind 
wings  largely  expanded  and  serving  as  a  substitute 
for  a  frenulum. 

I.  Cubitus  of  both  wings  apparently  four-branched, 
due  to  the  fact  that  both  the  second  and  third 
branches  of  media  (V2  and  V3)  are  joined  to  it. 

J.  Small  moths,  with  slender  bodies,  and  with  the 
apex  of  the  fore  wings  sickle-shaped  ;  humeral 
veins  absent,  p.  289 DREPANIDJE. 

JJ.  Moths  of  various  sizes,  but  with  robust  bodies, 
and  with  the  apex  of  the  fore  wings  not  sickle- 
shaped  ;  hind  wings  with  humeral  veins,  p. 
359 LASIOCAMPIDjE. 

II.  Cubitus  of  both  fore  and  hind  wings  apparently 
three-branched,  due  to  the  fact  that  only  the  third 
branch  of  media  (V3)  is  more  closely  joined  to  it 
than    to   radius.      (The   moths   included   in   this 


214 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


section  of  this  table  are  robust,  with  strong  wings, 
and  are  of  medium  or  large  size.  In  some  of  the 
Geometrina  (p.  270),  which  also  have  a  three- 
branched  cubitus,  the  frenulum  is  inconspicuous 
or  even  in  rare  cases  (Dyspteris)  wanting ;  these 
moths  can  be  distinguished  from  those  included 
here  by  their  smaller  size,  more  slender  body,  and 

weaker  wings),    p.  339 SATURNIINA. 

BB.  Antennae  thread-like  with  a  knob  at  the  extremity. 
C.  With  the  radius  of  the  fore  wings  five-branched,  and  with  all 
of  the  branches  arising  from  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  445)  ;  club  of 
antennae  usually  terminated  by  a  recurved  hook.      The  Skip- 
pers,   p.  364 HESPERIINA. 

CC.  With  some  of  the  branches  of  the  radius  of  the  fore  wings 
coalesced  beyond  the  apex  of  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  455) ;  club  of 
antennae  not  terminated  by  a  recurved  hook.  The  Butterflies. 
p.  373 PAPILIONINA. 

Suborder  JUGATE  (Ju-ga'tae). 
The  jugate  (Ju'gate]  Lepidoptera. 

The  American  representatives  of  this  suborder  are  rare 
moths,  which  the  student  beginning  the  study  of  insects  is 
not  likely  to  meet.  They  can  be  easily  recognized  by  the 
peculiar  structure  of  the  hind  wings,  which  resemble  the 

fore  wings  in  form  and  in 
venation  (Fig.  238).  In  all 
other  Lepidoptera,  the  two 
pairs  of  wings  differ  in 
form,  and  the  hind  wings 
are  furnished  with  fewer 
veins  than  are  the  fore 
wings. 

The  most  important 
characteristic  of  the  sub- 
order, and  the  one  to  which 
its  name  refers,  is  the  way 
in  which  the  two  wings  of  each  side  are  fastened  together. 
There  projects  backward  from  the  inner  margin  of  the  fore 


LEPIDOPTERA.  215 

wing  near  its  base  a  small  lobe  (Fig.  243,^'),  which  extends 
under  the  costal  margin  of  the  hind  wing;  while  the  greater 
part  of  the  inner  margin  of  the  fore  wing  overlaps  the  hind 
wing.  This  arrangement  assures  the  acting  together  of  the 
two  wings. 

This  projecting  lobe  is  named  thefugum  or  yoke ;  and  the 
moths  possessing  this  organ  are  termed  the  Jugatae  or  the 
Jugate  Lepidoptera. 

This  suborder  includes  only  two  families;  one  represented 
by  minute  moths,  the  other  by  moths  of  medium  or  large 
size. 

Family  HEPIALID^E  (He-pi-al'i-dae). 
The  Swifts. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  of  medium  or  large  size. 
Figure  244  represents  one  of  the  larger  species.  Our  best 


FIG.  ztA.—Hepialus  argcnteomacvlattu. 


known  forms  are  brown  or  ashy  gray  in  color,  with  the  wings 
marked  with  silvery  white  spots. 

It  is  said  that  these  moths  fly  near  the  earth,  and  only  in 
the  evening  after  sunset,  hiding  under  some  low  plant,  or 
clinging  to  the  stalk  of  an  herb  during  the  day.  Some  of 
them  fly  with  extreme  rapidity,  with  an  irregular  mazy  flight, 
and  have,  therefore,  been  named  Swifts  by  collectors.  They 
are  attracted  to  lights.  Figure  238  represents  the  venation 
of  the  wings  of  Hepialus  (He-pi'a-lus). 


216 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  larvae  are  nearly  naked,  and  grub-like  in  appearance, 
although  furnished  with  sixteen  legs.  They  feed  upon 
wood,  and  are  found  at  the  roots  or  within  the  stems  of  plants. 
They  transform  either  in  their  burrows,  or,  in  the  case  of 
those  that  feed  outside  of  roots,  within  loose  cocoons.  The 
pupae  have  transverse  rows  of  teeth  on  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments ;  these  aid  them  in  emerging  from  their  burrows. 
The  best  known  American  species  bores  in  the  stems  of  the 
speckled  or  hoary  alder  (Alnus  incand). 

Family  MICROPTERYGID^E  (Mi-crop-te-ryg'i-dae). 

The  Little-winged  Jugates  (Ju' gates). 

These  are  very  minute  moths,  which  resemble  Tineids  in 

size  and  appearance.     The   largest   species   known   to  the 

writer  expands  but  little  more  than  half  an  inch.    Figure  245 

represents  the  venation  of  the  wings.     Only  a  single  genus, 


vni  vnaVIIi 


FIG.  245.— Wings  of  Micropteryx. 

Micropteryx  (Mi-crop'te-ryx),  occurs  in  this  country.     The 
larvae  are  leaf-miners. 

Suborder  FRENAT^;  (Fre-na'tse). 
The  Frenate  (Fre'nate)  Lepidoptera. 

To  the  Frenatae  belong  nearly  all  of  our  moths,  and  all 
skippers  and  butterflies.     With  most  moths  of  this  suborder 


LEPIDOPTERA.  21 7 

there  exists  near  the  base  of  the  costal  margin  of  the  hind 
wings  a  strong  bristle  or  bunch  of  bristles  named  the  frenu- 
lum, or  little  bridle  (Fig.  237, /).  As  the  frenulum  projects 
forward  under  the  fore  wing  it  tends  to  depress  the  hind 
wing  when  the  fore  wing  is  depressed,  thus  insuring  the  act- 
ing together  of  the  twro  pairs  of  wings.  Usually  the  frenulum 
consists  of  two  or  more  bristles  in  females  and  of  a  single 
stronger  bristle  in  males.  The  difference  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  in  males  the  bunch  of  bristles  have  grown  together  into 
a  single  strong  bristle.  There  is  also  another  sexual  differ- 
ence. In  the  males  the  tip  of  the  frenulum  fits  into  a  mem- 
branous hook  borne  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  fore  wing, 
thus  firmly  tying  together  the  two  wings  (Fig.  237,  f.li). 
This  frenulum  hook  is  rarely  found  in  females.  In  certain 
moths  there  is,  besides  the  frenulum  hook,  a  tuft  of  hairs 
projecting  forwards  from  just  behind  the  cubitus  of  the  fore 
wing  near  its  base,  which  tends  also  to  keep  the  frenulum  in 
place. 

With  some  moths  and  with  all  skippers  and  all  butterflies 
the  base  of  the  costal  portion  of  the  hind  wings,  the  humeral 
angle  as  it  is  termed,  is  largely  developed,  so  that  it  projects 
far  under  the  fore  wing  (Fig.  241).  This  overlapping  of  the 
two  wings  at  the  base  to  so  great  an  extent  insures  their  act- 
ing together  without  the  aid  of  the  frenulum  ;  and,  conse- 
quently, there  being  no  use  for  a  frenulum,  this  organ  has 
disappeared.  In  other  words,  the  frenulum  has  been  super- 
seded by  the  large  development  of  the  humeral  angle.  But 
as  we  believe  that  these  moths,  skippers,  and  butterflies  have 
descended  from  forms  which  had  a  frenulum,  we  class  them 
with  the  moths  that  still  possess  this  organ  under  the  sub- 
order Frenatae. 

A  more  easily  observed  character  which  serves  to  distin- 
guish members  of  this  suborder  is  a  striking  difference  in 
the  venation  of  the  two  pairs  of  wings,  the  hind  wings  hav- 
ing fewer  veins  than  the  fore  wings. 


218 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Family  MEGALOPYGID^:  (Me-gal-o-pyg'i-dse). 

The  Flannel-moths. 

Sometimes  there  is  attracted  to  our  evening  lamp  a 
whitish  moth,  whose  wings,  being  densely  clothed  with  long 
curly  hairs,  resemble  bits  of  flannel ;  this  is  the  Crinkled 
Flannel-moth,  Megalopyge  cris- 
pata  (Me-gal-o-py'ge  cris-pa'ta). 
It  is  cream-colored,  with  the  fore 
wings  marked  with  wavy  lines  of 
crinkled  black  and  brownish  hairs. 
The  male  is  represented  by  Fig- 
ure 246 ;  the  female  is  larger, 
FIG.  246— Megalopyge crispata.  expanding  one  and  three  fifths 
inches.  In  the  female  the  antennae  are  very  narrowly  pecti- 
nate. The  larva  is  said  to  feed  on  oak,  elm,  apple,  and  rasp- 
berry. 

In  the  Southern  States  there  occur  three  other  species 
of  this  family.  These 
moths  are  easily  distin- 
guished by  the  structure 
of  their  wings  (Fig.  247). 
There  are  three  anal 
veins  in  both  fore  and 
hind  wings ;  but  in  the 
fore  wings  the  second 
and  third  anal  veins  (veins 
IX  and  XI)  are  partially 
grown  together.  The 
basal  part  of  vein  V  is 
more  or  less  distinctly 
preserved,  and  divides 
the  discal  cell  into  two 
nearly  equal  parts.  Veins 
II  and  III  of  the  hind  ix  vni 

Wings       are       grown       tO-  FlG<  247-~ Win&s  of  Megalopyge  crispata. 

gether  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  discal  cell. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


219 


The  larvae  of  the  Flannel-moths  are  remarkable  for  the 
possession    of    ten    pairs    of    legs, 
three  thoracic   and   seven   abdomi- 
nal.    All  other  known    lepidopter- 
ous   larvae,    except    perhaps    those 
of  Micropteryx,  have  lost   some  of 
the  abdominal  legs.     The  cocoons 
of   these    insects   are  also   remark-    FIG.  248.-Cocoon  of . 
able,  being  furnished  with  a  trap-door  (Fig.  248). 

Family  PSYCHID^E  (Psy'chi-dae). 

The  Bag-worm  Moths. 

The  Bag-worms  are  those  caterpillars  that  have  the  curi- 
ous habit  of  building  each  for  itself  a  silken  sac  covered 
with  little  twigs  within  which  it  lives  (Figs. 
249  and  250).  When  the  caterpillar  wishes 
to  move  from  one  place  to  another  it  pushes 
forth  the  front  end  of  its  body  and  creeps 
along,  carrying  its  house  with  it.  It  is  said 
that  the  species  that  inhabit  Ceylon  are  be- 
lieved by  the  natives  to  be  composed  of 
individuals  who  in  a  previous  incarnation 
were  human  beings  and  stole  kindling-wood, 
and  who  now  atone  for  the  theft  by  repeat- 
ing the  act  as  an  insect. 

When    a    Bag-worm    is    fully    grown,    it 
fastens  its  sac  to  a  twig  and   changes  to  a 
pupa  within  it.     And  here  the  females  remain  until  death, 
leaving  their  eggs  within  their 
sacs.     These  females  are  grub- 
like    creatures  without  wings. 
But  the  male  pupa  works  his 
way  out   from  the  lower  end 
of   his   sac  and   changes  to  a 
winged  moth.    Figure  250  rep- 
resents the  sac  of  a  male  with  the  empty  pupa-skin  projecting 


FIG.  249.— Bag  of 
Oiketicus  abbotii. 


emales 

4 

FIG.  250. -Bag  of 


FIG.  251  —  Psyt 
confederatn. 


220 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


FIG.   v&.—Tkyridopttryx 

tphemirtfformis. 


from  the  lower  end,  and  Figure  251    the   fully  developed 

male.     These   figures   are   of    one   of    our   smaller   species, 

which  belong  to  the  genus  Psyche  (Psy'che). 

Abbot's    Bag-worm,  Oikettcus    abbotii    (Oi-ket'i-cus    ab- 

bot'i-i). — This  species  occurs  in  the  more  southern  part  of 

our  country.     The  larva  makes  a  bag  with   sticks  attached 

to  it  crosswise  (Fig.  249). 

The  Evergreen  Bag-worm,  TJiyridopteryx  epJiemercufor- 
mis  (Thyr-i-dop'te-ryx  e-phem-e-rae-for'- 
mis). — This  is  our  best  known  species, 
and  on  this  account  has  been  commonly 
called  The  Bag-worm.  But  as  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  different  names  for  the  dif- 
ferent species,  we  call  this  one  the  Ever- 
green Bag-worm  ;  for  although  it  feeds  on 

many  different  trees,  it  prefers  red  cedar  and  arbor  vitae.    The 

bag    of    this    species 

is  about  the  same  size 

as    that   of    Abbot's 

Bag-worm;  but  it  dif- 
fers in  being  covered 

with  bits  of  leaves  of 

cedar  or  arbor  vitae,  or 

with  twigs   attached 

lengthwise. 

The  structure  of 

the  wings  of  the  Psy- 

chidae   is   very   char- 
acteristic (Fig.   253). 

Both    the    fore    and 

the  hind  wings  may 

have    either   two    or 


FIG. 


FIG. 


53-— Wings  of   Thyridopteryx  ephetntratforntis. 

three  anal  veins  ;  but  the  anal  veins  of  the 
fore  wings  are  grown  together  so  as  to  ap- 
pear as  a  single  much-branched  vein.  The 
base  of  vein  V  is  preserved  and  is  forked 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


221 


within  the  discal  cell.  In  the  hind  wings,  veins  I  and  II 
and  veins  II  and  III  are  grown  together  in  an  unusual 
way.  In  Figure  254  these  veins  are  represented  slightly 
separated  in  order  to  show  their  relation  to  each  other. 

Family  CossiDJi  (Cos'si-dae). 
The  Carpenter-moths. 

This  family  includes  moths  with  spindle-shaped  bodies, 
and  narrow,  strong  wings,  some  of  the  species  resembling 
Hawk-moths  quite  closely  in  this  respect.  The  larvae  are 
wood-borers,  living  in  the  solid  wood  of  the  trunks  of  trees. 
They  are  often  very  injurious  to  forest  or  shade  trees,  and 
one  recently  imported  species  is  very  injurious  to  pear  trees. 
The  wood-boring  habits  of  the  larvae  suggest  the  popular 
name  Carpenter-moths  for  the  insects  of  this  family. 

These  moths  fly  by  night,  and  lay  their  eggs  on  the  bark 


FIG.  255.— Wings  of  Prionoxytus  robinia .  /,  frenulum,  enlarged. 

of  trees,  or  within  tunnels  in  trees  from  which  adult  Car- 
penter-moths  have  emerged.  The  caterpillars  are  nearly 
naked,  and,  although  furnished  with  pro-legs  as  well  as  true 
legs,  are  grub-like  in  form.  The  pupa  state  is  passed  within 


222  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

the  burrow  made  by  the  larva.  When  ready  to  change  to 
an  adult,  the  pupa  works  its  way  partially  out  from  its  bur- 
row. This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  backward-project- 
ing, saw-like  teeth,  there  being  one  or  two  rows  of  these  on 
each  abdominal  segment.  After  the  moths  have  emerged 
the  empty  pupa-skins  can  be  found  projecting  from  the 
deserted  burrows. 

The  Carpenter-moths  are  of  medium  or  large  size.  Our 
more  common  species  are  of  a  pepper-and-salt  color,  due  to 
strongly  contrasting  dark  and  light  scales.  The  antennae 
are  usually  pectinate  in  both  sexes,  but  in  some  species  those 
of  the  female  are  simple  ;  the  ocelli  are  wanting ;  and  the 
mouth-parts  are  obsolete. 

The  structure  of  the  wings  is  shown  in  Figure  255 
There  are  two  anal  veins  in  the  fore  wing,  and  three  in  the 
hind  wings.  The  base  of  vein  V  is  preserved,  and  is  forked 
within  the  discal  cell.  In  the  fore  wings,  the  branches  of 
vein  III  anastomose  so  as  to  form  an  accessory  cell.  The 
frenulum  is  rudimentary  in  most  of  our  genera  (Fig.  255), 
but  is  strongly  developed  in  others. 

Our  most  common  species  is  the  Locust-tree  Carpenter- 


FIG.  z^.—Prionoxystus  robinia. 

moth,  Prionoxystus  robinia  (Pri-on-ox-ys'tus  ro-bin'i-ae). 
Figure  256  represents  the  female  natural  size.  The  male  is 
but  little  more  than  half  as  large  as  the  female.  It  is  much 


LEPID  OP  TERA .  223 

darker  than  the  female,  from  which  it  differs  also  in  having 
a  large  yellow  spot,  which  nearly  covers  the  outer  half  of  the 
hind  wings.  This  species  flies  in  June  and  July.  As  sug- 
gested by  its  name,  it  infests  locust ;  but  its  larva  also  bores 
in  the  trunks  of  oak,  poplar,  willow,  and  other  trees.  It 
is  supposed  that  the  species  requires  three  years  to  com- 
plete its  transformations. 

The  Leopard -moth,  Zeuzera  pyrina  (Zeu-ze'ra  py-ri'na) 
is  a  large  European  species  which  has  become  common  in 
the  vicinity  of  New  York  City,  and  will  doubtless  spread  to 
other  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  white,  spotted  with  numer- 
ous small  black  spots.  Its  larva  is  very  injurious,  especially 
to  maple.  It  infests  other  shade  trees,  and  also  apple  and 
pear. 

Family  EUCLEID^:  (Eu-cle'i-dae). 

The  Slug-caterpillar  Moths. 

One  often  finds  on  the  leaves  of  shrubs  or  trees  elliptical 
or  oval  larvae  that  resemble  slugs  in  the  form  of  the  body 
and  in  their  gliding  motion.  As  these  are  larvae  of  moths 
they  have  been  termed  Slug-caterpillars ;  but  they  present 
very  little  similarity  in  form  to  other  caterpillars.  The  re- 
semblance  to  slugs  is  greatly  increased  by  the  fact  that  the 


FIG.  257.— Larva  of  Eulimacodes  scapha.     FIG.  v$.—Euclta.  delphinii,  larva.    FIG.  259. 

lower  surface  of  the  body  is  closely  applied  to  the  object 
upon  which  the  larva  is  creeping,  the  pro-legs  being  replaced 
by  mere  swellings  on  the  abdominal  segments.  Some 
species  are  naked  (Fig.  257);  but  many  of  them  are  armed 


224 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


with  branching  spines  (Fig.  258).  The  larvae  when  full 
grown  spin  very  dense  cocoons  of  brown  silk  ;  these  are 
egg-shaped  or  nearly  spherical  (Fig.  259),  and  are  usually 
spun  between  leaves. 

The  moths   are   of   medium    or   small   size ;  they   vary 

greatly  in  appearance, 
and  many  of  them  are 
very  prettily  colored. 

Considerable  variation 
exists  in  the  venation  of 
the  wings  in  this  family 
(Figs.  260,  261).  The 
base  of  vein  V  may  be 
preserved  or  wanting.  In 
some  species  it  is  forked 
within  the  discal  cell,  in 
others  not.  There  is  also 
considerable  variation  in 
the  coalescence  of  the 
branches  of  radius,  but 
veins  III3  and  III4  co- 
alesce to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  any  other 
branches  of  this  vein,  and  there  is  no  accessory  cell. 

The  Skiff  Caterpillar,  Eulimacodes  scaplia  (Eu-lim-a-co'des 
sca'pha). — This  remarkable  larva  (Fig.  257)  is  not  uncommon 
on  oak  and  other  forest  trees.  It  is  pale  apple-green,  with  a 
chestnut-brown  patch  on  its  back.  The  moth  (Fig.  262)  is 
light  cinnamon-brown,  with  a  tan-brown  triangular  spot  on 
each  fore  wing. 

The  Spiny  Oak-slug,  Euclea  delphinii  (Eu'cle-a  del- 
phin'i-i). — This  larva  (Fig.  258)  is  one  of  the  most  common 
of  our  slug-caterpillars.  It  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  oak, 
pear,  willow,  and  other  trees.  The  moth  is  cinnamon- 
brown,  with  a  variable  number  of  bright  green  spots  on  the 
fore  wings  (Fig.  263). 


VIII 
FIG.  260.— Wings  of  Adoneta  sfinuloides. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


22$ 


The  Saddle-back  Caterpillar,  Empretia  stimulea  (Em- 
pre'ti-a  sti-mu'le-a).— This  larva  can  be  recognized  by  Fig- 
ure  264.  Its  most  characteristic  feature  is  a  large  gree^n 


XI 


vn, 


vii, 

IX  ~~          VIII 
FIG.  261. — Wings  of  Packardia  geminata. 


patch  on  the  back,  resembling  a  saddle-cloth,  while  the 
saddle  is  represented  by  an  oval  purplish-brown  spot.  The 
moth  is  dark,  velvety,  reddish  brown,  with  two  golden  dots 


FIG.  ite.—Eulimacodes  scafha.        FIG.  z6^.—Euclea  delphiitii. 


FIG.  264.— Emfirttia. 
stimulea,  larva. 


near  the  apex  of  the  fore  wings.  The  larva  feeds  on  oak 
and  other  forest  trees.  The  prick  of  its  spines  is  said  to  be 
venomous. 


226 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Family  PYROMORPHID^E  (Pyr-o-mor'phi-dae). 
The  Smoky-moths. 

There  are  but  few  insects  in  our  country  pertaining  to 
this  family.  These  are  small  moths,  that  are 
chiefly  of  a  smoky  black  color;  some  are 
marked  with  brighter  colors. 

FM  ^faharlul'.         A  tiny  representative  of  the  family  which 

seems  to  be  not  uncommon  in  the  East  is  Acoloitkus  fal- 

sarius   (Ac-o-loi'thus    fal-sa'ri-us).       This   moth  (Fig.     265) 

expands  two  thirds  of  an  inch.     It  is  black,  with  the  pro- 

thorax  of  an  orange  color.     The  venation  of  its  wings  (Fig. 

266)  is  peculiar  in  that  subcosta  and  radius  of  the  hind  wings 

coalesce  for  only  a  short 

distance  beyond  the  mid- 

dle of  the  discal  cell,  and 

a  stump  of    radius   pro- 

jects    towards    the    base 

of    the    wing,    from    the 

point  of  union  of  the  two 

veins.     The   larva  feeds 

in  early  summer  on  the 

leaves   of   grape   and    of 

the  Virginia  creeper.     It 

is    said    that    the    pupa 

state  lasts  fourteen  days 


vn, 


IX  VIII 
FIG.  266. — Wings  of 


and  is  passed  within  a  parchment-like  cocoon.     The  adult 
frequents  flowers  in  the  daytime. 

The  typical  genus  of  the  family  is  represented  in  the  At- 

lantic and  Western  States  by  Pyromorpha  dimidiata  (Pyr-o- 

mor'pha  di-mid-i-a'ta).     The  entire  insect  is  smoky  black, 

:cept  the  basal  half  of  the  fore  wings  in  front  of  vein  IX, 

basal  half  of  the  costa  of  the  hind  wings,  which  are 

3w.     The  wings  are  thinly  scaled,  and  expand   a  little 

than  one  inch.     Figure  267  represents  the  venation  of 

the  wings. 


LEP1DOPTERA. 


227 


In  Texas  and  Arizona  there  occur  several  species  of 
Triprocris  (Trip'ro-cris).  The  venation  of  one  of  them  is 
shown  in  Figure  268. 
It  is  remarkable  in  that 
none  of  the  branches  of 
radius  of  the  fore  wings 
coalesce  beyond  the  dis- 
cal  cell. 

The  genus Harrisina 
(Har-ris'i-na)  seems  to 
be  closely  allied  to  the 
preceding  and  is  placed 
in  this  family  provision- 
ally. It  differs,  how- 
ever, from  the  typical 
form  of  the  family  in 

that     the     anal     area     Of         FlG-  267.— Wings  of  Pyromorpha  dimidiata. 

the  hind  wings  is  greatly  reduced,  there  being  only  two, 
short,  strongly  curved  anal  veins.     As  in  the  other  members 

of  the  family  there  are 
J11*     two,well-developed  anal 
I111*  veins  preserved   in  the 
fore  wings. 

In  the  East  the  most 
common  species  is  Har- 
risina americana  (H. 
a-mer-i-ca'na)  (Fig.  269). 


VII, 


tt, 


FIG.  268.- Wings  of   Trifrocris  marteni. 


FIG.  a6g.—f/arrftfiia  amtricana. 


The  wings  are  long  and  narrow;  the  abdomen  is  long  and 
widened  towards  the  caudal  end.  It  is  greenish  black  in 
color,  with  the  prothorax  reddish  orange.  The  larva  feeds 


228 


THE  STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


on  the  leaves  of  grape  and  of  the  Virginia  creeper.  An 
entire  brood  of  these  larvae  will  feed  side  by  side  on  a 
single  leaf  while  young. 

Harrisina  texana  (H.  tex-a'na)  occurs  in  the  Southwest. 
It  closely  resembles  the  preceding;  but  is  bluish  black 
with  a  reddish  orange  prothorax.  Harrisina  coracina  (H. 
cor-a-ci'na)  also  occurs  in  the  Southwest.  This  species  is 
entirely  black. 

Superfamily  PYRALIDINA  (Pyr-a-li-di'na). 
The  Pyralids  (Pyr'a-lids\ 

This  superfamily  includes  moths  of  medium  or  small 
size ;  but  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  species  are  small  that 
the  superfamily  is  commonly  classed  with  the  two  following 
as  Microlepidoptera. 

The  members  of  the  different  families  included  in  this 
superfamily  differ  so  greatly  in  appearance  that  it  is  not 

possible  to  give  a  gen- 
eral description  that 
will  serve  to  distinguish 
it.  It  is  necessary  to 
study  structural  char- 
acters to  find  evidences 
of  a  common  bond,  and 
here  as  in  other  groups 
we  find  the  structure  of 
the  wings  most  useful 
for  this  purpose. 

As  a  rule  there  are 

FIG.  270.— 

hind  wings  and  two  in  the  fore  wings.  In  this  respect  this 
superfamily  agrees  with  the  preceding  families  and  with  the 
two  following  superfamilies.  But  in  most  cases  the  Pyralids 
can  be  recognized  by  the  fact  that  the  subcosta  and  radius  of 
the  hind  wings  are  separate  along  the  discal  cell,  but  grown 


it,  iir}  in3 
ll — 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


229 


vS* 


VIII 


FIG.  271.— Wings  of  Tlascala  redttctelia. 


together  for  a  short  distance  beyond  the  cell,  after  which 
they  are  again  separate 
(Fig.  270).  In  some  gen- 
era these  two  veins  do 
not  actually  coalesce,  but 
extend  very  near  to- 
gether for  a  short  dis- 
tance (Fig.  271).  The 
two  types,  however,  are 
essentially  the  same. 

This  superfamily  in- 
cludes seven  families, 
which  can  be  separated 
by  the  table  given  below. 
The  Plume -moths  are 
placed  last  in  the  series, 
as  we  believe  that  they 
depart  more  widely  from  the  primitive  type  than  do  any 
of  the  other  families. 

A.  Wings  not  fissured. 

B.  Hind  wings  without  a  fringe  of  hairs  on  the  basal  part  of  vein 
VII.     Care  must  be  taken  not  to  mistake  scattered  hairs  on  the 
anal  area  of  the  wing  for  such  a  fringe. 
C.  Fore  wings  with  veins  III4  and  III5  separate,  vein  III*  arising 

from  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  272).    p.  230 PYRAUSTID*:. 

CC.  Fore  wings  with  veins  IIL  and  Ills  united  at  base  (Fig.  277). 

p.  232 PYRALIDID^:. 

BB.   Hind  wings  with  a  fringe  of  long  hairs  on  the  basal  part  of 
vein  VII. 
C.   Radius  of  fore  wings  five-branched. 

D.  Maxillary  palpi  more  or  less  developed,  but  not  triangular 

as  in  the  next  family,    p.  233 GALLERIID^:. 

DD.  Labial  palpi  long,  straight,  projecting  forward  ;  maxillary 
palpi  well  developed,  strongly  dilated  at  tip  with  scales,  ap- 
pearing triangular  when  viewed  from  the  side.  p.  234. 

CRAMBIDiE. 

CC.  Radius  of  fore  wings    four-branched,  veins  IIIi  and  III4 
coalescing  to  edge  of  wing  (Fig.  281).    p.  235 PHYCITID*:. 


230 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


AA.  Wings  fissured. 

B.   Wings  with  less  than  five  fissures;  usually  the  fore  wings  have 

one  fissure  and  the  hind  wings  two.     p.  237 PTEROPHORIDJE. 

BB.  Each  wing  split  into  six  parts,     p.  238 ORNEODID^E. 


Family  PYRAUSTID^;  (Py-raus'ti-dse). 
The  Pyraustids  (Py-raus'tids). 

The  members  of  this  family  differ  from  other  Pyralids  by 
the  following  combination  of  characters.  There  is  no  fringe 
of  long  hairs  on  the  basal  part  of  vein  VII  of  the  hind 

wings,  and  vein  IIIB  of 
the  fore  wings  arises 
from  the  discal  cell  dis- 
tinct from  vein  III4  (Fig. 
272).  This  family  in- 
cludes many  small 
moths;  but  it  contains 
also  the  majority  of  the 
larger  species  of  Pyra- 
lids. Some  of  the  species 
are  very  striking  in  ap- 
pearance. 

The  Grape  Leaf- 
folder,  Desntia  fnneralis  (Des'mi-a  fu-ne-ra'lis)  is  a  common 
species,  the  larva  of  which  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  grape. 
The  larva  folds  the  leaf  by  fastening  two  portions  together 
by  silken  threads.  When  full  grown,  it 
changes  to  a  pupa  within  the  folded  leaf. 
The  moth  is  black  with  shining  white  spots. 
The  male  (Fig.  273)  differs  from  the  fe- 
male in  having  a  knot-like  enlargement  near 
the  middle  of  each  antenna.  There  is  some  variation  in 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  white  spots  on  the  wings.  In 
some  specimens  the  white  spot  of  the  hind  wing  is  sepa- 
rated into  two  or  three  spots. 


FIG.  272.  -Wings  of  Nomophila 


FIG.  273  — Desmia 
Juneralis. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


231 


The    Bass-wood    Leaf-roller,  Pantographa   limata   (Pan- 
tog'ra-pha  li-ma'ta). — Our  bass-wood  trees  often  present  a 

strange  ap- 
pearance 
from  the  fact 
that  nearly 
every  leaf  is 
cut  more  than 
half  way 
across  the 
middle,  and 
the  end  rolled 
into  a  tube 

(Fig.  274).  Within  this  tube 
there  lives  a  bright  green  larva, 
with  the  head  and  thoracic  shield 
black.  This  larva  resembles  cer- 


tain  Tortricid  larvae,  both  in  ap- 
pearance and  habits ;  but  a  study 
of  the  adult  shows  it  to  be  a  Py- 

FIG.  274.— Nest  of  larva  of  Pantographa  ralid.       The   moth  expands  about 

one  and  one  half  inches;    it  is 

straw-colored,  with  many  elaborate  markings  of  olive  with 
a  purplish  iridescence  (Fig.  275).  There  is  one  brood  a 
year ;  the  winter  is  passed  in  the  larval  state. 

The  Melon-worm,  Margaronia  hyalinata  (Mar-ga-ro'ni-a 
hy-a-li-na'ta).— This  beautiful  moth  (Fig.  276)  is  often  a 
serious  pest  in  our  southern  states,  where  the  larva  is  very 


232 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


destructive  to  melons  and  other  allied  plants,  destroying 
both  the   foliage   and   the   fruit.     The  moth  is  a  superb 


FIG.  ^.-Margaronia.  hyalinata,  larvae,  cocoon,  and  adults.    (From  the  Author's 
Report  for  1879.) 

creature,  with  glistening  white  wings  bordered  with  black, 
and  with  a  spreading  brush  of  long  scales  at  the  end  of 
the  abdomen. 

Family  PYRALIDID.E  (Pyr-a-lid'i-dae). 
The  Typical  Pyralids  (Pyr'a-lids). 

The  moths  of  this  family  are  distinguished  from  other  Pyr- 
alids, except  the  next  family,  by  the  absence  of  a  fringe  of 
hairs  on  the  basal  part  of  vein  VII  of  the  hind  wings ;  and 
they  are  distinguished  from  that  family  by  the  fact  that  veins 
IIIt  and  III,  of  the  fore  wings  are  united  at  base  (Fig.  277). 
It  is  one  of  the  smaller  of  the  families  of  Pyralids ;  fifty-four 
species  are  now  enumerated  in  our  lists. 


LEPIDOPTEKA. 


233 


The  Meal-moth,  Pyralis  farinalis  (Pyr'a-lis  far-i-na'lis)  is 

a     common     species. 

The    larva    feeds   on 

meal,  flour,   and    old 

clover-hay.  The  moth 

is    commonly    found 

near  the  food  of  the 

larva,    but     is    often 

seen   on  the   ceilings 

of  rooms  sitting  with 

its    tail    curved    over 

its  back.     It  expands 

about  an   inch  ;    the 

fore  wings   are  light 

brown,     crossed     by 

two      curved      white 

lines,  and  with  a  dark 

chocolate-brown  spot 

on  the  base  and   tip 

of  each. 

The  Clover-hay  Worm,  Pyralis  costalis  (Pyr'a-lis  cos-ta'- 

lis).  The  larva  of  this  species  sometimes  abounds  in  old 
stacks  of  clover-hay,  and  especially  near  the 
bottom  of  such  stacks.  As  the  infested  hay  be- 
comes covered  with  a  silken  web  spun  by  the 
larva,  and  by  its  black  gunpowder-like  excre- 
ment, much  more  is  spoiled  than  is  eaten  by 

the  insect.     The  moth  expands  about  four  fifths  of  an  inch. 

It  is  of  a  beautiful  lilac  color,  with  golden  bands  and  fringes 

(Fig.  278). 

Family  GALLERIID^E  (Gal-le-ri'i-dae). 
The  Bee-motli  Family. 

This  is  a  small  family,  of  which  only  seven  species  have 
been  found  in  our  fauna.  The  best  known  of  these  is  the 
Bee-moth,  Galleria  mellonella  (Gal-le'ri-a  mel-lo-nel'la).  The 


VIII 


FIG.  277.—  Wings  of  Pyr 


iiialis. 


234  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

larva  of  this  species  is  a  well-known  pest  in  apiaries.  It 
feeds  upon  wax ;  and  makes  silk-lined  galleries  in  the  honey- 
comb, thus  destroying  it.  When  full  grown  the  larva 
is  about  an  inch  in  length.  It  lies  hidden  in  its  gallery  dur- 
ing the  day,  and  feeds  only  at  night,  when  the  tired-out  bees 
are  sleeping  the  sleep  of  the  just.  When  ready  to  pupate 
the  caterpillar  spins  a  tough  cocoon  against  the  side  of  the 
hive. 

The  moth  has  purplish-brown  front  wings,  and  brown  or 
faded  yellow  hind  wings.  The  fore  wings  of  the  male  are 
deeply  notched  at  the  end,  while  those 
of  the  female  (Fig.  279)  are  but  slightly 
so.  The  female  moth  creeps  into  the 
hive  at  night  to  lay  her  eggs. 

This  pest  is  found  most  often  in  weak 
FIG.  279.-G,iUeria  ,neiio-    colonies  of  bees,  which   it   frequently 
destroys.     The  best  preventive  of  its 

injuries  is  to  keep  the  colonies  of  bees  strong.  Of  course 
the  moths  and  larvae  should  be  destroyed  whenever  found. 
But  the  moths  are  slippery  like  other  expert  thieves,  and 
run  so  rapidly  when  disturbed  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  catch  them. 

Family  CRAMBID.E  (Cram'bi-dae). 

The  Close-wings. 

Although  this  is  not  a  large  family,  there 
being  only  seventy-five  species  known  in  our 
fauna,  the  members  of  it  are  more  often  seen 
than  any  other  Pyralids.  The  larvae  of  most 
of  the  species  feed  on  grass;  and  the  adults 
fly  up  before  us  whenever  we  walk  through 
meadows  or  pastures.  When  at  rest,  the  moths 
wrap  their  wings  closely  about  the  body ;  this 
has  suggested  the  name  Close-wings  for  the  FIG 
insects  of  this  family.  When  one  of  these 
moths  alights  on  a  stalk  of  grass  it  quickly  places  its  body 


LEPIDOPl^ERA. 


235 


parallel  with  the  stalk,  which  renders  it  less  conspicuous 
(Fig.  280).  Many  of  the  species  are  silvery  white  or  are 
marked  with  stripes  of  that  color. 

More  than  fifty  of  our  species  belong  to  the  genus  Cram- 
bus  (Cram'bus).  The  moths  of  this  genus  are  often  seen; 
but  the  larvae  usually  escape  observation.  They  occur 
chiefly  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where  they  live  in 
tubular  nests  constructed  of  bits  of  earth  or  vegetable 
matter. 


1113*4 


Family  PHYCITID^E  (Phy-cit'i-dae). 
The  Phycitids  (Phyc'i-tids\ 

Our  most  common  members  of  this  family  are  small 
moths  with  rather  narrow  but  long  fore  wings,  which  are 
banded  or  mottled  with 
various  shades  of  gray 
or  brown.  The  family 
is,  however,  a  large  one 
and  other  types  of  col- 
oration occur.  The  dis- 
tinctive characteristics 
are  those  given  in  the 
table  above.  Figure  281 
represents  the  venation 
of  the  wings. 

The  larvae  of  the  dif- 
erent  species  vary  greatly 

V  \  "^ 

VIII 


FIG.  281.— Wings  of   Tlascala  reductelta. 


in  habits.     Some  live  in 

flowers,  some  fold  or  roll 

leaves  within  which  they 

live  and    feed;    some  are  borers;    others  feed   upon  dried 

fruits,    or    flour   and    meal  ;    and    one,    at    least,   is   preda- 

ceous,  feeding    on    coccids.     Usually  the   larva   lives   in    a 

silken  tube  or  case,  lying  concealed  by  day  and  feeding  by 

night. 


236  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  case  made  by  certain  of  the  leaf-eating  species  is 
very  characteristic  in  form  (Fig.  282),  being  strongly  taper- 
ing and   much    curved  ;   in  this  instance  the 
case  is  composed  largely  of  the  excrement  of 
the  larva. 

The  Indian-meal  Moth,  Plodia  interpunc- 
tella  (Plo'di-a  in-ter-punc-tel'la)  is  the  best 
known  of  the  species  that  infest  stored 
provisions.  The  larva  is  the  small  whitish 
worm,  with  a  brownish  -  yellow  head,  that 
spins  thin  silken  tubes  through  meal  or  among 
yeast-cakes,  or  in  bags  or  boxes  of  dried  fruits.  The  moth 
expands  about  five  eighths  of  an  inch.  The  basal  two  fifths 
of  the  fore  wing  is  dull  white  or  cream-colored  ;  the  outer 
part  reddish  brown,  with  irregular  bands  of  blackish  scales. 

The  Mediterranean  Flour -moth,  Ephestia  kiihniella 
(E-phes'ti-a  kiilin-i-el'la),  is  an  even  more  serious  pest  than 
the  preceding  species,  which  it  resembles  in  habits.  It  has 
become  very  troublesome  in  recent  years  in  flouring-mills. 
The  moth  expands  about  one  inch,  and  is  grayish  in  color. 
Although  it  is  called  the  Mediterranean  Flour-moth,  its 
source  is  not  definitely  known.  Nor  do  we  know  of  any 
easy  way  of  ridding  an  infested  mill  of  it.  Carbon  bisul- 
phide is  perhaps  the  most  available  insecticide  in  this 
case. 

Zimmermann's  Pine-pest,  Pinipestis  zimmermanni  (Pin-i- 
pes'tis  zim-mer-man'ni),  is  a  common  species,  the  larva  of 
which  is  a  borer.  It  infests  the  trunks  of  pine,  causing  large 
masses  of  gum  to  exude.  The  moths  appear  in  mid- 
summer. 

The  Coccid-eating  Pyralid,  Latilia  coccidivora  (Lae-til'i-a 
coc-ci-div'o-ra),  differs  from  the  other  members  of  this 
family  in  being  predaceous.  It  feeds  on  the  eggs  and 
young  of  various  scale-insects  (Pulvinaria,  Dactylopius,  and 
Lecanium}.  Figure  283  represents  the  different  stages  of 
this  insect  enlarged,  and  the  moths  natural  size  resting  on 


LEPIDOPTEKA. 


237 


egg-sacs  of  Pulvinaria.     Like  other  members  of  this  family 
the  larva  spins  a  silken  tube,  within  which  it  lives.     On  a 


FIG.  ^.-LBtilia  coccidirora:  a,  egg;  *,  larva  ;  r,  pupa;   d,  adult;  e,  t,  moths  natural 
size  resting  on  egg-sacs  of  fulvinana. 

thickly-infested  branch  these  tubes  may  be  found  extending 
from  the  remains  of  one  coccid  to  another. 

Family  Pterophoridae  (Pter-o-phor'i-dse). 

The  Plume-moths. 

The    Plume -moths   are   so   called   on   account   of    the 
remarkable  form  of  the  wings,  which  are  split  by  longitu- 


238  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

dinal  fissures  into  more  or  less  plume-like  divisions.  In 
most  species  the  fore  wing  is  separated  into  two  parts,  by 
a  fissure  extending  about  one  half  the  length  of  the  wing; 
while  the  hind  wing  is  divided  into  three  parts  by  fissures 
extending  farther  towards  the  base  of  the  wing.  Sixty 
species  belonging  to  the  family  have  been  found  in  North 
America. 

One  of  our  most  common  species  is  the  Gartered  Plume, 
Oxyptilus periscelidactyhis  (Ox-yp'ti-lus  per-is-cel-i-dac'ty-lus). 
This  is  a  small  moth,  expanding  about  seven 
tenths  of  an  inch.  It  is  of  a  yellowish  brown 
color  marked  with  dull  whitish  streaks  and 
spots  (Fig.  284).  The  larvae  hatch  early  in  the 
5PrmS»  ancl  feeci  upon  tne  newly-expanded 
*H*c*ii<Uctyiu*.  ieaves  Of  grape.  They  fasten  together 
several  of  them,  usually  those  at  the  end  of  a  shoot,  with 
fine  white  silk;  between  the  leaves  thus  folded  the  cater- 
pillars live  either  singly  or  two  or  three  together.  They 
become  full  grown  and  change  to  pupae  early  in  June. 
The  pupa  is  not  enclosed  in  a  cocoon,  but  is  fastened  to 
the  lower  side  of  a  leaf  by  its  tail  by  means  of  a  few  silken 
threads,  in  nearly  the  same  way  that  the  chrysalids  of  certain 
butterflies  are  suspended.  The  pupa  state  lasts  about  eight 
days. 

Family  ORNEODID^  (Or-ne-od'i-dae). 
The  Many-plume  Moths. 

These  insects   resemble   the   Plume 
,      |  Moths    in    having   the  wings    fissured  ; 

but  here  the  fissuring  is  carried  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  in  that  fam- 
'^''  each  wing  being  divided  into  six 
plumes  (Fig.  285). 

As  yet  only  a  single  species  of  this 
family  has  been  found  in  North  Amer- 
kuem&utyu.  ica.     This  is  Orneodes  hexadactyla  (Or- 

ne-o'des  hex-a-dac'ty-la). 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


239 


Superfamily  TORTRICINA  (Tor-tri-ci'na). 
The  Tortricids  (Tor  tri-cids). 

The  Tortricids  are  generally  small  moths ;  but  as  a  rule 
they  are  larger  than  the  Tineids.  They  have  broad  front 
wings,  which  usually  end  squarely.  The  costa 
of  the  front  wing  curves  forward  strongly 
near  the  base  of  the  wing.  When  at  rest  the 
broad  front  wings  fold  above  the  body  like  a 
roof.  The  moths  are  variegated  in  color,  but 
are  usually  brown,  gray,  or  golden  rather  than 
of  brighter  hues.  As  a  rule  the  hind  wings 
are  of  the  color  of  the  body  and  without 
markings.  In  the  venation  of  the  wings  they 
differ  from  the  Pyralids  in  having  subcosta 
and  radius  of  the  hind  wings  widely  separate 
beyond  the  end  of  the  discal  cell ;  and  from 
the  Tineids  in  having  the  second  anal  vein 
of  the  hind  wings  forked  towards  the  base 
(Fig.  286). 

The  larvae 
vary  greatly  in 
habits ;  but  a 
large  proportion 
of  them  are  leaf- 
rollers  (Fig.  287). 
It  was  this  habit 
that  suggested 
the  name  Tor- 
trix  (Tor'trix) 
for  the  typical 
genus,  from 


XI     IX 

FIG.  286.— Wings  of  Cacaecia 
cerasivorana. 


FIG.  287. -Leaf 
rolled  by  a 
larva,  probably 
a  Tortricid. 

which  the   names  of  one  family  and    of  the 
superfamily  are  derived.     A  large  proportion  of  the  rolled 
leaves  found  upon  shrubs  and  trees  are  homes  of  Tortricid 
larvae.     But  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  leaf-rolling 
habit  is  not  confined  to  this  family. 


240  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  rolled  leaves  serve  the  Tortricid  larvae  not  merely 
as  homes  but  also  as  food,  for  they  feed  upon  the  enclosed 
portions.  Sometimes  several  leaves  are  used  by  a  larva, 
but  more  often  only  one,  or  in  many  cases  merely  a  tip  or 
one  edge  of  a  leaf  is  used.  Some  species  cut  a  slit  in  a  leaf 
and  roll  only  one  part  of  it.  They  also  differ  greatly  as  to 
the  extent  to  which  the  leaves  are  rolled.  Some  species  are 
gregarious,  an  entire  brood  making  a  common  nest.  During 
the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and  in  the  autumn  these 
rolled  leaves  can  be  found  on  almost  any  tree  or  shrub. 

In  nearly  all  cases  entomologists  in  naming  Tortricids 
have  formed  the  specific  name  with  the  ending  -ana;  so 
that  the  form  of  the  name  indicates  the  family  to  which  the 
insect  belongs. 

More  than  four  hundred  North  American  species  of 
Tortricids  are  known.  The  superfamily  includes  three  fam- 
ilies, which  can  be  separated  by  the  following  table  : — 

A.  With  a  fringe  of  long  hairs  on  the  basal  part  of  vein  VII  of  the 
hind  wings,  on  the  upper  side  of  the  wing.  Do  not  mistake  a 
bunch  of  long  hairs  arising  from  the  wing  back  of  vein  VII  for 

this  fringe,    p.  240 GRAPHOLITHID/E. 

A  A.  Without  a  fringe  of  long  hairs  on  the  basal  part  of  vein  VII  of 

the  hind  wings. 
B.  Vein  VIIa  of  the  fore  wings  arising  from  the  outer  fourth  of  the 

discal  cell,  p.  243 CONCHYLID^E. 

BB.  Vein  VII2  of  the  fore  wings  arising  from  a  point  before  the 
outer  third  of  the  discal  cell,  p.  244 TORTRICIDS. 

Family  GRAPHOLITHID^E  (Graph-o-lith'i-dae). 
The  Grapholithids  (Gra-phot i-thids). 

These  moths  are  easily  distinguished  from  other  Tortri- 
cids by  the  presence  of  a  fringe  of  long  hairs  on  the  basal 
part  of  cubitus  of  the  hind  wing.  To  this  family  belong 
nearly  two  thirds  of  our  species  of  Tortricids.  The  follow 
ing  are  some  of  our  more  common  species  : — 


LEPiDOP  TERA .  24 1 

The  Codlin-moth,  Carpocapsa  pomonella  (Car-po-cap'sa 
pom-o-nel'la). — This  is  the  best-known  and  probably  the 
most  important  insect  enemy  of  the  fruit-grower.  The 
larva  is  the  worm  found  feeding  near  the  Core  of  wormy 
apples.  The  adult  (Fig.  288)  is  a  beautiful  little  creature 
with  finely  mottled  pale  gray  or  rosy  fore 
wings.  There  is  a  large  brownish  spot  near 
the  end  of  the  fore  wing,  and  upon  this  spot 
irregular,  golden  bands.  The  moth  issues 
from  the  pupa  state  in  late  spring  and  lays  FIG. 
its  eggs  singly  in  the  maturing  blossoms  of 
the  apple  just  as  the  petals  fall.  As  soon  as  the  larva 
hatches  it  burrows  into  the  apple  and  eats  its  way  to  the 
eore,  usually  causing  the  fruit  to  fall  prematurely.  When 
full  grown  the  larva  burrows  out  through  the  side  of  the 
fruit,  and  undergoes  its  transformations  within  a  cocoon, 
under  the  rough  bark  of  the  tree,  or  in  some  other  protected 
place.  The  species  is  both  single-brooded  and  double- 
brooded.  The  larvae  winter  in  their  cocoons,  transforming 
to  pupae  during  early  spring. 

The  method  of  combating  this  pest  that  is  most  com- 
monly employed  now  is  to  spray  the  trees  with  Paris-green 
water,  just  after  the  petals  fall  and  before  the  young  apples 
are  heavy  enough  to  droop.  The  falling  spray  lodges  in  the 
blossom  end  of  the  young  apple,  and  the  larva  which  hatches 
from  an  egg  laid  in  this  position  gets  a  dose  of  poison  with 
its  first  rneal,  and  dies  before  it  can  eat  its  way  into  the 
apple. 

The  Bud-moth,  Tmetocera  ocellana  (Tme-toc'e-ra  oc-el- 
la'na). — The  larva  of  this  insect  is  also  a  pest  infesting  apple- 
trees.  It  works  in  opening  fruit-buds  and  leaf-buds,  often 
eating  into  them,  especially  the  terminal  ones,  so  that  all  new 
growth  is  stopped.  It  also  ties  the  young  leaves  at  the  end 
of  a  shoot  together  and  lives  within  the  cluster  thus  formed, 
adding  other  leaves  when  more  food  is  needed.  Sometimes 
so  large  a  proportion  of  the  fruit-buds  are  destroyed  as  to 


242 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


seriously  reduce  the  amount  of  the  crop.  The  pupa  state  is 
passed  within  the  cluster  of  tied  leaves  or  within  a  tube 
formed  by  rolling  up  one  side  of  a  leaf,  and  lasts  about  ten 
days.  The  moth  expands  about  three  fifths  of  an  inch ;  it  is 
of  a  dark  ashen  gray,  with  a  large,  irregular,  whitish  band  on 
the  fore  wing. 


FIG.  ^89.     Rttinia.  comstockiana,  larva,  pupa,  adult,  and  work.    (From  the  Author's 
4  Report  for  1879.) 

The  Pitch-pine  Retinia,  Retinia  comstockiana  (Re-tin'i-a 
n-stock-i-a'na).-This   species  (Fig.   289)  illustrates  well 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


243 


the  habits  of  the  boring  species.  The  larva  infests  the 
small  branches  of  pitch-pine.  It  is  a  yellowish-brown 
caterpillar,  which  makes  a  burrow  along  the  centre  of 
the  branch.  Its  presence  may  be  detected  by  the  resin 
that  flows  out  of  the  wound  in  the  twig  and  hardens 
into  a  lump.  Two  of  these  lumps  are  shown  in  the 
figure,  one  of  them  splits  lengthwise, 
and  the  other  with  a  pupa-skin  pro- 
jecting from  it.  The  larva,  pupa, 
and  adult  are  also  figured.  The 
moth  is  represented  natural  size ; 
the  darker  shades  are  dark  rust- 
color,  and  the  lighter,  light-gray. 
The  insect  winters  as  a  larva ;  the 
adult  emerges  in  May  and  June. 

The  Frustrating  Retinia,  Retinia 
frustrana(ir\\s-\.Y3ir\&). — This  species 
infests  the  new  growth  of  several 
species  of  pine,  spinning  a  delicate 
web  around  the  terminal  bud,  and 

mining  both  the  twig  and  the  bases  the  Author's  Report  for  .879.) 
of  the  leaves.  The  larva,  pupa,  and  adult  are  represented 
somewhat  enlarged  in  the  figure.  An  infested  twig  is  also 
shown  (Fig.  290). 


Family  CONCHYLID^:  (Con-chyl'i-dae). 
The  Conchy  lids  (Con1  chy-lids). 

This  is  the  smallest  of  the  three  families  of  Tortricids,  less 
than  fifty  species  occurring  in  our  fauna.  The  members  of 
it  can  be  recognized  by  the  characters  given  in  the  table 
above.  Comparatively  little  is  known  about  the  habits  of 
our  species. 

The  Juniper  Web-worm,  Conchylis  rutilana  (Con'chy-lis 
ru-ti-la'na),  is  an  imported  species  which  has  attracted  atten- 


244 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


tion  by  its  injuries  to  junipers,  the  leaves  of  which  it  fastens 
together  with  silk.  In  this  way  it  makes  a  more  or  less  per- 
fect tube  within  which  it  lives.  The  moth  expands  about 
one  half  inch,  and  has  bright,  glossy,  orange,  fore  winers. 
crossed  by  four  reddish  brown  bands. 

Family  TORTRICID.E  (Tor-tric'i-dse). 
The  Typical  Tortricids  (Tor1  tri-cids], 

The  Tortricidae  agree  with  the  preceding  family  in  lack- 
ing a  fringe  of  long  hairs  on  the  basal  part  of  vein  VII  of  the 
hind  wings,  but  differ  in  that  vein  VII,  of  the  hind  wings 
separates  from  the  main  stem  before  the  outer  third  of  the 
discal  cell.  More  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  North 
American  species  are  known. 

Several  of  our  best-known  members  of  this  family  belong 
to  the  genus  Caccecia  (Ca-coe'ci-a).  These  may  be  called  the 
Ugly-nest  Tortricids,  ugly  dwelling  being  the  meaning  of 
Caccccia,  and  also  descriptive  of  the  nests  of  the  larvae  of 
these  insects. 

Figure  291  represents  the  nest  of  the  larva  of  Caccecia  ro- 
sana  (C.  ro-sa'na),  which  we  bred  on  currant  ;  and  Figure  292, 
the  adult  of  this  species.  This 
moth  expands  three  fourths  of 
an  inch.  The  fore  wings  are 
olive-brown,  crossed  by  bands 
of  darker  color  ;  the  hind  wings 
are  dusky.  This  species  differs 


FIG.  291.— Nest  of  Caccecia  rosana. 


FIG.  292.—  Caccecia  rosa 


from  the  two  following  in  that  each  larva  makes  a  nest  for 
itself. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


245 


The  Cherry-tree  Ugly-nest  Tortricid,  Caccecia  cerasivo- 
rana  (C.  cer-a-si-vo-ra'na),  lives  upon  the 
choke-cherry  and  sometimes  upon  the  cul- 
tivated cherry.  The  larvae,  which  are  yel- 
low, active  creatures,  fasten  together  all 
the  leaves  and  twigs  of  a  branch  and  feed 
upon  them  (Fig.  293),  an  entire  brood  oc- 
cupying a  single  nest.  The  larvae  change 
to  pupae  within  the  nest ;  and  the  pupae, 
when  about  to  transform,  work  their  way 
out  and  hang  suspended  from  the  outer 
portion  of  the  nest,  clinging  to  it  only  by 
hooks  at  the  tail  end  of  the  body.  Here 
they  transform,  leaving  the  empty  pupa- 
skins  projecting  from  the  nest,  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  The  moths  vary  in  size,  the 
wing  expanse  of  those  we  have  bred  rang- 
ing from  four  fifths  of  an  inch  to  nearly 
one  and  one-fifth  inches.  The  wings  are 
bright  ochre-yellow  ;  the  front  pair  marked 
with  irregular  brownish  spots  and  numer- 


FIG. 


'accrcia  certui- 
i,  female. 


FIG.  203.— Nest  of  Caccecia        FIG.  294.— Caccec ia  cerasi- 
cerativorana.  vorana,  male. 


ous  transverse  bands  of  pale  leaden  blue  (Fig.  294  male, 
295  female). 

The  Oak  Ugly-nest  Tortricid,  Caccecia  fervadana  (C.  fer- 

va-da'na). The  nests  of  this  species  are  common  on  our 

oak-trees  in  late  summer.  They  are  merely  a  wad  of  leaves 
fastened  together.  Each  nest  contains  several  larvae  ;  later 
the  empty  pupa-skins  may  be  found  clinging  to  the  outside 
of  the  nest  as  in  the  preceding  species. 

The    Pine-leaf   Tube-builder,   Lophoderus  politana  (Lo- 


246 


STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


phod'e-rus  pol-i-ta'na).  —  One  of  the  most  interesting  of  Tor- 
tricid  nests  occurs  commonly  on  white  pine.  Each  nest 
consists  of  from  six  to  ten  leaves  drawn  together  so  as  to 
form  a  tube,  and  is  lined  within  with  silk.  This  tube  serves 
as  a  protection  to  the  larva,  from  which  it  comes  out  to  feed 
upon  the  ends  of  the  very  leaves  of  which  the  tube  is  com- 
posed ;  in  this  way  the  tube  is  shortened.  We  bred  the 
moth  from  nests  collected  at  Ithaca,  New  York;  but  we 
have  found  similar  nests  as  far  south  as  Florida.  The  moth 
expands  one  half  inch.  Its  head,  thorax,  and  fore  wings  are 
of  a  dull  rust-red  color,  with  two  oblique  paler  bands  cross- 
ing the  fore  wings,  one  a  little  before  the  middle,  the  other 
beyond,  parallel  to  it. 


Superfamily  TINEINA  (Tin-e-i'na). 
The  Tine  ids  (Tin'e-ids). 

The  Tineids  are  nearly  all  minute  moths  with  narrow 
wings,  which  are  bordered  with  wide  fringes.  A  few  species 
are  of  considerable  size,  and  have  broader  wings,  with  nar- 
rower fringes. 

The  narrow-winged  forms  can  be  distinguished  from  all 
other  moths  by  the  shape  of  the  wings  and  the  great  width 
of  the  fringes.  The  moths  figured  below  (Figs.  298,  299, 
300,  302)  illustrate  this.  It  should  be  remembered  that  in 
each  of  these  figures  the  insect 
is  represented  greatly  enlarged  ; 

in  most  cases  tne  size  °f  tne 
insect  is  represented  by  a  hair- 
line near  the  figure. 

The  wide-winged  forms  are 
most  surely  distinguished  by 
the  venation  of  the  wings.  In 
its  more  general  features  the 
venation  of  the  wings  in  this 
family  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Tortricids  ;  it  differs,  how- 


FIG.  296.— Wings  of  Def>resiaria 
fieracliana. 


L  EPID  OP  TERA .  247 

ever,  in  that  the  second  anal  vein  of  the  hind  wings  is  not 

forked  towards  the  base  (Fig.  296). 

The  venation  of  the  wings  of  the  more  generalized  Tineids  is  quite 
primitive  in  type;  there  are  two  anal  veins  in  the  fore  wings,  three 
anal  veins  in  the  hind  wings,  and  the  base  of  vein  V  is  preserved 
throughout  the  length  of  the  discal  cell.  But  the  more  specialized 
members  of  the  superfamily  present  a  wide  departure  from  this  gen- 
eralized type.  With  these  the  base  of  vein  V  has  disappeared  from 
both  pairs  of  wings,  and  the  venation  of  the  hind  wings  is  reduced  to 
a  greater  extent  than  is  seen  elsewhere  in  winged  Lepidoptera. 

Correlated  with  this  great  reduction  of  the  hind  wings  there  has 
been  a  great  expansion  of  the  fringe  of  the  wing.  It  is  evident  that 
the  fringe  of  the  wing  takes  the  place  of  the  wing-membrane  as  an 
organ  of  flight.  In  those  Tineids  that  we  have  studied  carefully  the 
hairs  composing  the  fringe  are  inserted  in  the  lower  side  of  the  wing- 
membrane  a  short  distance  back  from  the  edge  of  the  wing;  and  the 
edge  of  the  wing  is  stiffened  above  by  strong  overlapping  scales. 
This  arrangement  renders  the  fringe  rigid  during  the  downward 
stroke  of  the  wing,  but  admits  of  its  depression  during  the  upward 
stroke ;  a  combination  well  adapted  to  facilitate  flight.  The  substi- 
tution of  wide  fringes  for  the  wing-membrane  occurs  in  some  other 
minute  insects,  as  Thrips  and  certain  minute,  parasitic  Hymenop- 
tera. 

To  this  superfamily  belong  the  smallest  of  the  Lepidop- 
tera ;  many  of  them  are  so  minute  that  the  larvae  live  until 
full  grown  within  the  tissue  of  leaves. 

These  tiny  moths  are  often  very  beautiful,  their  wings 
being  marked  with  scales  that  shine  like  silver  or  gold  ;  but 
they  are  so  small  that  it  is  necessary  to  examine  them  with 
a  lens  to  appreciate  their  beauty. 

The  larvae  of  nearly  all  Tineids  feed  upon  vegetable 
matter.  The  majority  of  them  feed  upon  or  within  the 
leaves  of  plants,  but  many  live  within  nuts,  or  seeds,  or  dried 
fruits;  a  few  feed  upon  dead  animal  matter,  as  woolens, 
furs,  and  feathers;  and  some  are  predaceous,  destroying 
scale-bugs. 

Entomologists  have  a  custom  of  terminating  the  name 
of  each  species  of  Tineid  with  -ella.  Thus  we  have  Tinea 


248  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

granella,  Adela  ridingsella,  Bucculatrix  pomonella,  and  many 
hundreds  of  others;  until  the  syllable  -ella  always  brings 
before  us  a  vision  of  a  tiny  moth,  with  narrow  wings  bear- 
ing long  delicate  fringes. 

The  Tineids  are  very  numerous,  there  being  nearly  one 
thousand  described  American  species ;  and  doubtless  there 
are  many  undescribed  as  yet.  The  superfamily  is  composed 
of  several  families;  but,  as  the  study  of  these  insects  is 
too  difficult  to  be  carried  far  by  the  beginning  student,  we 
will  not  take  the  space  to  define  these  families  in  this  work. 
We  will  merely  describe  the  habits  of  a  few  species. 

At  first  thought  the  leaves  of  our  common  shrubs  and 
trees  seem  quite  as  thin  as  if  they  had  been  cut  out  of 
sheets  of  paper.  But  the  reader  has  doubtless  learned  in 
the  study  of  Botany  that  the  upper  and  the  lower  surfaces 
of  a  leaf  are  each  covered  with  a  thin  skin  or  epidermis,  and 
that  between  these  two  skins  there  is  a  fleshy  portion  called 
the  parenchyma.  But  if  botanists  had  failed  to  teach  us 
this  lesson,  the  Tineid  larvae  would  have  done  so ;  for  many 
of  these  little  creatures  live  until  full  grown  between  the  two 
skins  of  a  leaf,  and  derive  their  nourishment  from  the  paren- 
chyma. As  our  coal-miners  dig  tunnels  in  the  earth,  so  do 
these  larvae  eat  out  long  passages  in  the  substance  of  a  leaf, 
without  breaking  through  either  epidermis. 

During  the  late  summer  and  autumn  there  can  be  found 
on  almost  any  shrub  or  tree  leaves  that  are  more  or  less  dis- 
colored by  white  or  grayish  blotches  or  by  long  twisted 
lines  that  reveal  the  abiding-places  of  leaf-miners.  Surely 
Mr.  Lowell  must  have  had  these  in  mind  when  he  wrote : 

"  And  there's  never  a  leaf  nor  a  blade  too  mean 
To  be  some  happy  creature's  palace." 

Not  only  are  very  many  kinds  of  plants  infested  by 
Tineid  larvae,  but  the  mines  in  the  leaves  differ  greatly  in 
form  and  in  their  position  in  the  leaf.  These  differences  in 
food-plant  and  in  the  shape  and  position  of  the  mines  do 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


249 


not  indicate  that  these  larvae  are  inconstant  in  their  habits. 
In  fact,  the  opposite  is  the  case.  Each  species  of  Tineid 
infests  a  particular  species  of  plant,  or,  at  the  most,  several 
closely  allied  plants.  And  each  species  makes  a  mine  of 
definite  shape,  although  some  species  exhibit  different  habits 
in  the  different  stages  of  their  growth.  So  constant  are 
these  creatures  in  their  habits  that  in  most  cases  an  expert 
can  determine  the  species  of  Tineid  that  made  a  mine  by 
merely  examining  the  infested  leaf. 

The  various  kinds  of  mines  can  be  classed  under  a  few 
distinct  types.  The  long,  narrow,  and  more  or  less  winding 
mines  are  described  as 
linear  mines.  Some  of 
these  are  very  narrow  at 
their  beginning  and  grad- 
ually enlarge,  resembling 
in  outline  a  serpent ;  fre- 
quently the  larger  end  is 
terminated  by  a  blotch- 
like  enlargement,  suggest- 
ing a  head.  Such  mines 
are  termed  serpentine 
mines.  The  leaves  of  the 
wild  columbine  are  often 
marked  by  serpentine 
mines  (Fig.  297).  Other 

mines  that  start  from  a  narrow  beginning  enlarge  more 
rapidly  and  extend  in  a  more  or  less  regular  curve ;  these 
are  trumpet  mines.  A  common  example  of  a  trumpet 
mine  is  that  made  by  the  larva  of  Tischeria  malifoliella 
(Tis-che'ri-a  mal-i-fol-i-el'la)  in  the  leaves  of.  apple.  The 
mines  of  many  species  are  mere  disk-like  blotches  ;  these  are 
referred  to  as  blotch  mines  (Fig.  298).  Blotch  mines  differ  in 
position  ;  some  are  immediately  beneath  the  upper  epider- 
mis, while  others  are  nearer  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf. 
This  distinction  exists  also  in  most  of  the  other  types  of 


FIG.  297.— Leaf  with  serpentine  mines. 


250 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


mines.  In  some  of  the  blotch  mines  the  epidermis  of  one 
side  of  the  leaf  is  thrown  into  a  fold  by  the  growth  of  the 
leaf ;  these  are  tentiform  mines. 

In  addition  to  peculiarities  in  shape  many  mines  are 
marked  by  characteristic  lines  or  spots  composed  of  the 
droppings  of  the  larva. 

The  following  species  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  habits 
of  these  remarkable  insects. 

The  White-blotch  Oak-leaf  Miner,  LitJiocolletis  hamadrya- 
della  (Lith-o-col-le'tis  ha-mad-ry-a-del'la). — This  little  miner 
infests  the  leaves  of  many  different  species  of  oak,  and  some- 


times it  is  extremely  abundant.  We  have  seen  trees  infested 
so  badly  that  there  were  on  an  average  four  or  five  mines  in 
each  leaf.  Figure  298  represents  a  leaf  from  such  a  tree.  The 
nine  is  a  whitish,  blotch  mine  in  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  2$  I 

The  young  larva  is  remarkable  in  resembling  more  the  larva 
of  a  beetle  than  the  ordinary  type  of  lepidopterous  larvae. 
It  is  nearly  flat ;  the  first  thoracic  segment  is  much  larger  than 
any  of  the  others ;  the  body  tapers  towards  the  hind  end ; 
and  there  are  only  the  faintest  rudiments  of  legs  discernible. 
The  larvae  molt  seven  times.  At  the  seventh  molt  the  form 
of  the  body  undergoes  a  striking  change.  It  now  becomes 
cylindrical  in  form,  there  is  a  great  change  in  the  shape  of 
the  mouth-parts,  and  the  fourteen  feet  are  well  developed. 
This  change  in  form  during  the  life  of  the  larva  is  charac- 
teristic of  a  large  group  of  Tineids  of  which  this  species  may 
be  taken  as  a  type.  The  full-grown  cylindrical  larva  meas- 
ures about  one  fifth  inch  in  length.  It  spins  a  cocoon,  which 
is  simply  a  delicate,  semi-transparent,  circular  sheet  of  white 
silk,  stretched  over  a  part  of  the  floor  of  the  mine.  The 
pupa  is  dark  brown  in  color,  and  bears  a  toothed  crest  upon 
its  head,  which  enables  it  doubtless  to  pierce  or  saw  its  way 
out  from  the  cocoon.  The  moth  is  a  delicate  little  creature, 
whose  wings  expand  a  little  more  than  one  fourth  inch.  The 
fore  wings  are  white,  with  three,  broad,  irregular,  bronze  bands 
across  each,  and  each  band  is  bordered  with  black  on  the 
inner  side.  The  hind  wings  are  silvery. 

As  this  insect  passes  the  winter  as  a  larva  within  the  dry 
leaves,  the  best  way  to  check  its  ravages  when  it  becomes  a 
pest  is  to  rake  up  and  burn  such  leaves. 

The  Palmetto-leaf  Miner,  Laverna  sabalella  (La-ver'na 
sab-a-lel'la). — This  species  occurs  only  in  the  South  where 
the  saw-palmetto  grows.  But  it  is  of  general  interest  as 
illustrating  a  peculiar  type  of  larval  habit.  The  larvae  can 
hardly  be  said  to  be  leaf-miners ;  for  they  feed  upon  the 
upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  destroying  the  skin  as  well  as  the 
fleshy  part  of  the  leaf.  They  are  social,  working  together  in 
small  companies,  and  make  a  nest  consisting  of  a  delicate 
sheet  of  silk  covering  that  part  of  the  leaf  upon  which  they 
are  feeding;  this  sheet  is  covered  with  what  appears  like 
sawdust,  but  which  is  really  a  mass  of  the  droppings  of  the 


252 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


larvae  (Fig.  299).  The  full  grown  larva  attains  a  length  of 
half  an  inch.  The  pupa  state  is  passed  within  the  nest  made 
by  the  larvae.  The  moth  is  quite  large  for  a  Tineid,  the 
wings  expanding  five  eighths  of  an  inch.  Its  general  color  is 


FIG.  299.— Lt 


*na  sabalella,  larva,  pupa,  adult,  and   p; 
the  Author's  Report  for  1879.) 


rt  of  injured  leaf.     (From 


a  delicate  silvery  gray,  with  a  tinge  of  lavender  in  some  in- 
dividuals. 

The  Pine-leaf  Miner,  Gelechiapinifoliclla(Ge-\erc\\\-3.  pin-i- 
fol-i-el'la). — It  often  happens  that  the  ends  of  the  leaves  of 
pine  present  a  dead  and  brown  appearance  that  is  due  to  the 
interior  of  the  leaf  having  been  eaten  out.  This  is  the  work 
of  the  Pine-leaf  Miner  (Fig.  300).  At  the  right  season  it  is 
easy  to  see  the  long,  slender  larva  in  its  snug  retreat  by 
holding  a  leaf  up  to  the  light  and  looking  through  it ;  and 
later  the  pupa  can  be  seen  in  the  same  way.  Near  the  lower 
end  of  the  tunnel  in  each  leaf  there  is  a  round  hole  through 
which  the  larva  entered  the  leaf  and  from  which  the  adult 
emerges.  We  have  found  this  insect  in  several  of  the 
stouter-leaved  species  of  pine,  but  never  in  the  slender 
leaves  of  the  white  pine.  In  the  North  it  is  most  abundant 
in  the  leaves  of  pitch-pine. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


253 


^  The  Apple  Bucculatrix,  Bucculatrix  pomifoliella  (Buc-cu- 
'trix  pom-i-fol-i-el'la).— This  insect  differs  in  habits  in  sev- 


la'trix 


-Gelechia  pinifoliella,  larva,  pupa,  adult,  and  leaves  mined  by  the  larvj 
the  Author's  Report  for  1879.) 


(From 


eral  respects  from  any  of  the  other  Tineids  described  here. 
The  larva  infests  the  leaves  of  apple,  and  when  full  grown 
it  makes  a  small  white  cocoon  which  is  attached  to  the 
lower  surface  of  a  twig.  These  cocoons  sometimes  occur  in 
great  numbers,  side  by  side,  on  the  twigs  of  an  infested  tree 
(Fig.  301).  They  are  easily  recognized  by  their  shape  being 
slender,  and  ribbed  lengthwise.  It  is  these  cocoons  that 
usually  first  reveal  the  presence  of  this  pest  in  an  orchard. 
They  are  very  conspicuous  during  the  winter  when  the 
leaves  are  off  the  trees.  At  this  time  each  cocoon  contains 
a  pupa.  The  adult  moth  emerges  in  early  spring.  The 
eggs  are  laid  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves.  Each 
larva  when  it  hatches  bores  directly  from  the  egg  to  the 
upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  where  it  makes  a  brown  serpentine 


254  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

mine.  When  these  mines  are  abundant  in  a  leaf  it  turns 
yellow  and  dies.  When  the  larva  has  made  a  mine  from 
one  half  to  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long,  which  it  does  in 
from  four  to  five  days,  it  eats  its  way  out  through  the  upper 
surface.  Then  somewhere  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaf  it  weaves  a  circular  silken 
covering  about  one-twelfth  inch  in  diam- 
eter. Stretched  out  on  this  network  the 
larva,  which  is  now  about  one-tenth  inch  long, 
makes  a  small  hole  in  it  near  its  edge,  then, 
as  one  would  turn  a  somersault,  it  puts  its 
head  into  this  hole  and  disappears  beneath 
the  silken  covering,  where  it  undergoes  a 
change  of  skin.  It  remains  in  the  molting 
cocoon  usually  less  than  twenty-four  hours. 
After  leaving  this  cocoon  it  feeds  upon  the 
leaves  without  making  a  mine  ;  and  in  a  few 
days  makes  a  second  molting  cocoon  which 
differs  from  the  first  only  in  being  about  one- 
eighth  inch  in  diameter.  After  leaving  this  it 
FIG.  3oi.  —  Cocoons  again  feeds  for  a  few  days,  and  then  mi- 

of  Bucculatrix  pom-  .  .  .  .  .         . 

grates  to  a  twig  where   it   makes  the  long 


ribbed  cocoon  within  which  the  pupa  state  is  passed.     Thi 
very  interesting  life-history  was  first  worked  out  by  Mr.  A.  E. 
Brunn  while  a  student  in  the  writer's  laboratory  at  Cornell 
University. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  combat  this  pest  the  smaller 
twigs  bearing  cocoons  should  be  pruned  as  far  as  practicable 
during  the  winter  and  burned,  and  those  cocoons  that 
remain  on  the  larger  branches  should  be  washed  with  strong 
kerosene  emulsion. 

The  Resplendent  Shield-bearer,  Aspidisca  splendoriferella 
(As-pi-dis'ca  splen-do-rif-e-rel'la).—  This  Tineid  is  both  a 
miner  and  a  case-bearer.  It  feeds  within  apple-leaves,  and  at 
first  makes  a  linear  mine  ;  but  later  this  is  enlarged  into  a 
blotch  mine.  When  full  grown  the  larva  makes  an  oval  case 


LEPIDOPTERA,  2$$ 

cut  from  the  walls  of  its  mine  and  lined  with  silk.  It  then 
seeks  a  safe  place  in  which  to  fasten  this  case  and  pass  the 
winter.  This  is  usually  on  the  trunk  or  on  a  branch  of  the  in 
fested  tree  (Fig.  302).  Once  some  of  these  migrating  larva, 
dropped  from  a  tree  upon  the  writer's  hat  and  carefully 


FIG.  ^oz.—Aspidisca  sflendoriferella  :  a,  leaf  of  apple  showing  work;  6,  summer  larva; 
c.  larva  in  case  travelling  ;  d,  cases  tied  up  for  winter  ;  e,  hibernating  larva  ; ./",  pupa; 
£-,  moth  ;  A,  parasite.  (From  the  Author's  Report  for  1879.) 

fastened  themselves  to  the  band  with  misplaced  confidence 
that  they  could  remain  there  till  spring.  The  adult  has 
gray  and  golden  wings  with  silvery  and  dark  markings. 

The   Maple-leaf  Cutter,  Incurvaria  acerifoliella  (In-cur- 
va'ri-a  a-cer-i-fol-i-eria).— This  insect  illustrates  still  another 


THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


curious  type  of  larval  habits.  It  infests  the  leaves  of  maple, 
and  occasionally  is  so  abundant  that  it  does  serious  injury. 
The  leaves  of  an  infested  tree  present  a  strange  appearance 
(Fig.  303).  They  are  perforated  with  numerous  elliptical  holes, 
and  marked  by  many  more  or 
less  perfect  ring-like  patches 
in  which  the  green  substance 
of  the  leaf  has  been  destroyed, 
but  each  of  which  incloses  an 
uninjured  spot.  These  inju- 
ries are  produced  as  follows: 
The  young  larva  cuts  an  oval 
piece  out  of  a  leaf,  places  it 
over  its  back,  and  fastens  it 
down  with  silk  around  the 
edges.  This  serves  as  a  house 
beneath  which  it  lives.  As  it 
grows  this  house  becomes  too 
small  for  it.  It  then  cuts  out 
a  larger  piece  which  it  fastens 
to  the  outer  edges  of  the 

FIG.  3o3.-Leaf  infested  by  incurvaria.  smaller  one,  the  larva  being 
between  the  two.  Then  it  fastens  one  edge  of  this  case  to 
the  leaf  by  a  silken  hinge  so  that  it  will  not  fall  to  the 
ground  "  cradle  and  all,"  and  then  turns  the  case  over  so  that 
the  larger  piece  is  over  its  back.  When  it  wishes  to  change 
its  location  it  thrusts  out  its  head  and  fore  legs  fro*m  the 
case  and  walks  off,  looking  like  a  tiny  turtle.  When  it 
wishes  to  eat  it  fastens  the  case  to  the  leaf  and,  thrusting  its 
head  out,  eats  the  fleshy  part  of  the  leaf  as  far  as  it  can  reach. 
This  explains  the  circular  form  of  the  patches,  the  round 
spot  in  the  center  indicating  the  position  of  the  case.  The 
insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  pupa  state  within  its  case, 
which  falls  to  the  ground  with  the  infested  leaf.  The  moth 
is  of  a  brilliant  steel-blue  or  bluish-green  color  without  spots  ; 
it  appears  in  early  summer. 


LEPWOPTERA.  2tf 

Other  Case-bearers.— The  two  case-bearers  described 
above  make  their  cases  out  of  fragments  of  leaves  •  there 
are  others  that  use  the  husks  of  seeds  which  they  have 
eaten.  Such  cases  are  extremely  protective,  appearing  to 
be  merely  seeds.  But  there  are  some  Tineid  case-bearers 
that  make  their  cases  entirely  of  silk.  These  are  usually 
more  or  less  nearly  cylindrical,  and  are  carried  projecting 
out  at  a  considerable  angle  from  the  object  upon  which  the 
insect  walks.  When  the  insect  is  at  rest  and  when  it  is 
undergoing  its  transformations  the  mouth  of  the  case  is 
closely  fastened  to  some  object,  so  that  the  insect  is  com- 
pletely  concealed.  Considerable  differences  exist  in  the 
form  of  these  silken  cases.  In  a  quite  common  type  the 
case  is  nearly  cylindrical,  with  a  flaring  lip  at  the  head  end, 
and  with  the  hind  end  three-sided,  as  if  it  had  been  pinched 
between  one's  thumb  and  two  fingers.  In  another  type  the 
hind  end  of  the  case  is  somewhat  enlarged  and  curved  down- 
ward  so  that  the  case  is  shaped  like  a  pistol. 

The  Clothes-mot/is. — These  are  the  dread  of  every  house- 
keeper. The  mere  mention  of  the  word  "moths"  is  enough 
to  conjure  up  visions  of  household  treasures  of  woolen  and  fur 
eaten  full  of  holes,  their  beauty  gone,  their  usefulness  past. 
It  was  formerly  supposed  that  these  well-known  injuries 
were  caused  by  a  single  species ;  but  it  has  since  been  dis- 
covered that  we  have  in  this  country  three  species  of  clothes- 
moths.  These  differ  in  habits  as  well  as  in  structure. 

The  Case-bearing  Clothes-moth,  Tinea  pellionella  (Tin'e-a 
pel-li-o-nel'la). — The  larva  of  this  species  is  a  true  case- 
bearer,  making  a  case  out  of  bits  of  its  food-material  which 
are  fastened  together  with  silk.  As  the  larva  grows  it  en- 
larges its  case  by  adding  to  each  end  and  by  slitting  it  and 
inserting  a  piece.  Instructive  specimens  can  be  obtained  by 
rearing  the  larvae,  and  changing  them  from  time  to  time 
from  flannel  of  one  color  to  that  of  another.  The  shape  of 
the  successive  additions  to  the  case,  being  of  different  colors, 
can  be  easily  seen.  The  pupa  state  is  passed  within  the 


258  THE   STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 

case.  The  adult  is  a  small  brown  moth  with  a  few  dark 
spots  on  its  fore  wings. 

The  Tube-building  Clothes-moth,  Tinea  tapetzella  (T. 
tap-et-zel'la). — The  larva  of  this  species  makes  a  gallery 
composed  of  silk  mixed  with  fragments  of  cloth.  This  gal- 
lery is  long  and  winding  and  can  be  easily  distinguished 
from  the  case  of  the  preceding  species.  The  pupa  state  is 
passed  within  the  gallery.  The  moth  differs  greatly  in  ap- 
pearance from  the  other  two  species,  the  fore  wings  being 
black  from  the  base  to  the  middle  and  white  beyond. 

The  Naked  Clothes-moth,  Tinea  biselliella  (T.  bi-sel- 
li-eria). — Although  this  species  spins  some  silk  wherever  it 
goes,  it  makes  neither  a  case  nor  a  gallery.  It  may  be 
termed,  therefore,  the  Naked  Clothes-moth,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  other  two  species.  But  when  the  larva  is  full 
grown  it  makes  a  cocoon,  which  is  composed  of  fragments 
of  its  food-material  fastened  together  with  silk.  The  adult 
is  of  a  delicate  straw-color,  without  dark  spots  on  its  wings. 

Protection  from  Clothes-moths. — In  late  spring  or  early 
summer  all  winter  clothing,  flannels,  furs,  and  other  articles 
that  are  to  be  put  away  for  the  summer  should  be  thor- 
oughly brushed  or  examined  for  these  pests,  and  exposed  to 
the  sunlight  as  long  as  practicable.  Then  they  should  be 
wrapped  carefully  in  stout  paper,  or  better  packed  in  paste- 
board boxes,  which  can  be  procured  at  small  cost,  and  the 
crack  between  the  cover  and  the  box  closed  by  pasting  a 
strip  of  paper  over  it. 

The  Angoumois  Grain-moth,  Gelechia  cercalella  (Ge- 
le'chi-a  ce-re-a-lel'la).— Although  this  insect  is  closely  allied 
to  the  Pine-leaf  Miner,  its  habits  are  very  different.  This 
insect  feeds  upon  seeds,  and  especially  upon  stored  grain. 
It  occurs  throughout  our  country ;  but  it  is  especially  de- 
structive in  the  Southern  States.  In  that  part  of  the  coun- 
try it  is  extremely  difficult  to  keep  grain  long  on  account 
of  this  pest  and  certain  beetles  that  also  feed  on  stored 
grain.  The  adult  moth  is  of  a  very  light  grayish-brown 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


259 


color,  more  or  less  spotted  with  black ;  it  expands  about 
half  an  inch.  The  common  name  is  derived  from  the  fact 
that  it  has  been  very  destructive  in  the  province  of  Angou- 
mois,  France. 

Family  SESIID^  (Se-si'i-dae). 
The  Clear-winged  Moths  or  Sesiids  (Se' si-ids). 
The  Clear-winged  Moths  constitute  a  very  remarkable 
family,  many  of  them  resembling  bees  or  wasps  in  appear- 
ance  more   than    they  do   ordinary  moths,  a   resemblance 
due  to  their  clear  wings  and  in  some  cases 
to  their  bright  colors  (Fig.  304).    There  are  a 
few  moths   in   other  families,   as   the  Clear- 
winged    Sphinxes,    and    certain    Zygaenids, 
that  have  a  greater  or  less  part  of  the  wings 
devoid   of  scales  ;    but  they  are  exceptions.         Flc-  a°«- 
Here  it  is  the  rule  that  the  greater  part  of  one  or  both  pairs 
of   wings   are   free  from    scales;  hence  the  common  name 
Clear-winged  Moths. 

These  insects  are  of  moderate  size ;  as  a  rule  they  have 
spindle-shaped  antennae,  which  are  terminated  by  a  small 

silky  tuft  ; 
sometimes  the 
antennae  are 
pectinate ;  the 
margins  of  the 
wings  and  the 
veins  of  even 
the  c  1  ea  r- 
winged  species 
are  clothed 
with  scales  ; 
and  at  the  end 
of  the  abdo- 
men there  is 


FIG.  305.— Wings  of  Sanninn  e.vi'tiota,  female. 


a  fan-like  tuft  of  scales. 

The  fore  wings  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme  narrow- 


260  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

ness  and  the  great  reduction  of  the  anal  area  (Fig.  305) ; 
while  the  hind  wings  have  a  widely  expanded  anal  area. 
There  is  great  variation  within  the  family  in  the  number  of 
anal  veins  in  the  hind  wings,  the  number  ranging  from  two 
to  four.  The  maximum  number  of  anal  veins  in  the  Lepi- 
doptera  has  generally  been  considered  to  be  three  ;  but  in 
certain  forms  belonging  to  this  family  a  fourth  (vein  X)  is 
quite  well  represented. 

Another  remarkable  feature  of  all  tne  forms  that  we 
have  studied  is  that  in  the  female  the  bristles  composing 
the  frenulum  are  consolidated  as  in  the  male.  The  females 
also  possess  a  frenulum  hook ;  but  this  is  not  so  highly 
specialized  as  that  of  the  male. 

The  adults  fly  very  swiftly  and  during  the  hotter  part  of 
the  day.  They  frequent  flowers,  thus  increasing  their  resem- 
blance to  bees  or  wasps.  The  larvae  are  borers,  living  within 
the  more  solid  parts  of  plants.  Some  species  cause  serious 
injury  to  vegetation.  Nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  species 
have  been  found  in  this  country.  Doubtless  many  more 
exist ;  for  the  family  has  not  been  thoroughly  studied  as  yet. 
The  following  species  have  attracted  much  attention  on 
account  of  their  serious  ravages. 

The  Peach-tree  Borer,  Sannina  exitiosa  (San-ni'na  ex-it-i- 
o'sa). — This  is  the  most  important  insect  enemy  of  the 
peach-tree.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  difficult  to 
find  a  peach-tree  that  is  not  infested  by  it.  The  eggs  are 
laid  on  the  bark  of  the  tree  near  the  ground.  The  larvae 
bore  downward  in  the  bark  of  the  trunk  just  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  Their  burrows  become  filled  by  a 
gummy  secretion  of  the  tree.  As  this  oozes  out  in  large 
masses  the  presence  of  the  borer  is  easily  detected  by  it. 
When  full  grown  the  larva  comes  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  makes  a  cocoon  of  borings  fastened  together 
with  silk.  The  perfect  insects  appear  from  May  till  October, 
but  most  of  them  in  the  latter  part  of  June  and  early  in 
July.  There  is  a  single  generation  each  year.  The  adults 

1  -' 


LEPIDOPTERA.  26 1 

differ   greatly  in   appearance.     The  general  color  of  both 

sexes  is  a  glassy  steel-blue.     In  the  female  (Fig.   306)  the 

fore  wings  are  covered  With  scales,  and 

there  is  a  bright  orange-colored   band 

on    the  abdomen.     In    the    male  both 

pairs    of    wings    are    nearly   free    from 

scales.     No   better  method  of  fighting 

this  pest  has  been  found  than  to  care-  FlG"  3o6.-J«««««  «///««. 

fully  watch  the  trees  and  remove  the  larvae  with  a  knife  as 

soon  as  discovered. 

The  Pacific  Peach-tree  Borer,  Sannina  pacifica  (S.  pa- 
cif'i-ca). — On  the  Pacific  Coast  there  is  a  peach-tree  borer 
that  is  distinct  from  the  above,  and  appears  to  be  an  even 
more  serious  pest.  The  larva  is  more  difficult  to  remove 
from  the  tree,  as  it  bores  into  the  solid  wood.  The  female 
of  this  species  lacks  the  orange-colored  band  on  the  abdomen. 

The  Currant  Borer,  Sesia  tipuliformis  (Se'si-a  tip-u-li-for'- 
mis). — This  species  is  closely  allied  to  the  two  preceding, 
but  is  smaller,  expanding  only  about  three  fourths  of  an 
inch.  There  are  but  few  scales  on  either  pair  of  wings 
except  on  the  tip  and  discal  vein  of  the  fore  wings  and  the 
outer  margin  of  the  hind  wings.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the 
twigs  of  currant.  The  larvae  penetrate  the  stem,  and  de- 
vour the  pith  ;  in  this  way  they  make  a  burrow  in  which 
they  live  and  undergo  their  transformations.  The  perfect 
insects  appear  in  June.  Before  this  time  the  leaves  of  the 
infested  plant  turn  yellow.  If  such  plants  be  cut  and  burned 
in  May  the  pest  will  be  destroyed. 

The  Pine  Sesian,  Harmonia  pint  (Har-mo'ni-a  pi'ni).— 
Frequently  there  may  be  seen  on  the  trunks  of  pine-trees 
large  masses  of  resinous  gum  mingled  with  sawdust-like 
matter.  These  are  the  results  of  the  work  of  the  larva:  of 
this  insect,  which  bore  under  the  bark  and  into  the  superficial 
layers  of  the  wood.  The  adult  resembles  the  female  of  the 
Peach-tree  Borer,  but  the  abdomen  is  more  extensively 
marked  with  orange. 


262 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  Squash-vine  Borer,  Melittia  ceto  (Me-lit'ti-a  ce'to). — 
The  larva  of  this  species  (Fig.  307)  does  great  damage  by 
eating  the  interior  of  squash-vines.  In  some  places  it  is 


FIG.  307.— Melittia  ceto,  larva  in  squash-vine. 

almost  impossible  to  raise  squashes  on  account  of  its  rav- 
ages. The  fore  wings  of  the  adult  are  covered  with  scales, 
and  the  hind  legs  are  fringed  with  long  orange-colored  scales. 

Family  DIOPTID.E  (Di-op'ti-dae). 
The  Dioptids  (Di-op' tids). 

This  family  is  represented  in  our  fauna  by  a  single  known 
species,   Phryganidia    californica    (Phryg-a-nid'i-a  cal-i-for'- 


FIG.  y&.—Pkryeanidia  californica. 

ni-ca),  which  occurs  in  Califor- 
nia. This  is  a  pale-brown 
insect,  with  nearly  transparent 
wings  (Fig.  308).  The  veins 
of  the  wings  are  dark,  which 
renders  them  prominent.  In 
the  males  there  is  a  yellowish 
spot  just  beyond  the  discal  cell 


FIG.  309.— Wings  of  Phryganidia. 

The  venation  of  the  wings 


LEPIDOPTERA.  26$ 

(Fig.  309)  is  very  different  from  that  of  any  other  insect 
that  occurs  in  this  country. 

The  larvae  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  live-oaks,  and  some- 
times occur  so  abundantly  as  to  almost  strip  the  trees  of 
their  foliage.  They  are  said  to  feed  singly,  and  appear  to 
make  little  if  any  use  of  the  anal  feet  as  a  means  of  loco- 
motion, generally  carrying  the  last  segment  of  the  body 
elevated  in  the  air. 


Family  NOTODONTlDyE  (No-to-don'ti-dae). 
The  Prominents. 

This  family  includes  moths  of  moderate  size,  only  a  few 
of  the  larger  ones  expanding  more  than  two  inches.  With 
these  moths  the  body  is  rather  stout  and  densely  clothed 
with  hair,  and  the  legs,  especially  the  femora,  are  clothed 
with  long  hairs.  The  wings  are  strong,  and  not  very  broad, 
the  anal  angle  of  the  hind  wings  rarely  reaching  the  end  of 
the  abdomen.  In  their  general  appearance  many  of  these 
moths  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Owlet  Moths  or 
Noctuidae  ;  but  they  can  be  easily  distinguished  from  the 
Noctuids  by  the  position  of  vein  V2  of  the  fore  wings, 
which  does  not  arise  nearer  to  vein  VII  than  to  vein  III, 
as  it  does  in  that  family. 

In  some  species  the  front  wing  has  a  prominence  or 
backward  -  project- 
ing lobe  on  the  in- 
ner margin,  which 
has  suggested  the 
common  name  of 
Prominents  for 
these  insects  (Fig. 
310).  The  name  is 
more  generally  ap- 
propriate, however,  for  the  larvae,  as  a  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  them  than  of  the  adults  bear  striking  prominences. 


264 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  characteristic  features  in  the  structure  of  the  wings 
are  the  following  (Fig.  311):  the  fore  wings  have  a  single 

anal  vein,  the  hind 
wings  two ;  in  both 
wings  cubitus  is 
apparently  three- 
branched  ;  and  the 
subcosta  of  the  hind 
wings  does  not  make 
a  sharp  bend  into 
the  humeral  angle 
as  it  does  in  the 
Geometridae  (Fig. 
323).  In  some 
forms  the  basal  part 
of  vein  V  is  more  or 
less  distinctly  pre- 
served ;  and  in  some 
an  accessory  cell  is 
present. 

FIG.  311.— Wings  of  Notodonta  stragula.  The    larvae     feed 

upon  the  leaves  of  shrubs  and  trees.  Our  most  common 
species  live  exposed ;  but  some  species  live  in  folded 
leaves.  They  are  either  naked  or  thinly  clothed  with 
hairs.  Many  species  have  only  four  well-developed  pro- 
legs,  the  anal  pair  being  rudimentary,  or  transformed  into 
elongated  spikes.  Some  species  are  hump-backed;  and 
spines  or  fleshy  tubercles  are  often  present.  The  trans- 
formations occur  in  slight  cocoons  or  in  the  ground. 

The  family  is  a  large  one,  more  than  one  hundred  species 
occurring  in  the  United  States.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  more  common  species  : — 

The  Handmaid  Moths,  Datana  (Da-ta'na).—  Among  the 
more  common  representatives  of  the  Notodontidae  are  cer- 
tain brown  moths  that  have  the  fore  wings  crossed  with 
bars  of  a  different  shade  (Fig.  312),  and  that  bear  on  the 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


265 


fore  part  of  the  thorax  a  conspicuous  patch  of  darker  color, 
in  most  of  our  species  the  fore  wings  are  also  marked  with  a 
dot  near  the  center  of  the  discal, 
cell  and  a  bar  on  the  discal  vein.1 
These  moths  belong  to  the  genus 
Datana.  The  common  name, 
Handmaid,  is  a  translation  of  the 
specific  name  of  our  most  com- 
mon species,  D.  ministra  (D. 
mi-nis'tra).  But  as  this  species 
is  now  generally  known  as  the  Yellow-necked  Apple-tree 
Worm,  and  as  all  of  our  species  are  dressed  in  sober  at- 
tire as  becomes  modest  servants,  we  have  applied  the  term 
Handmaid  Moths  to  the  entire  genus. 

The  larvae  of  the  Handmaid  Moths  are  easily  recognized 
by  their  peculiar  habits.  They  are  common  on  various  fruit 
and  forest  trees,  but  especially  on  apple,  oak,  and  hickory. 
They  feed  in  colonies ;  and  have  the  habit  of  assuming  the 


FIG.  312.—  Data 


FIG.  313. — Datatta,  larva. 

curious  attitude  shown  in  Figure  313.  The  body  is  black  or 
reddish,  marked  with  lines  or  stripes  of  yellow  or  white. 
Owing  to  the  gregarious  habits  of  these  larvae  they  can  be 
easily  collected  from  the  trees  they  infest. 

All  of  the  species  that  we  have  studied 'agree  in  being 
single-brooded,  the   moths  appearing  in   midsummer;    the 


266  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

eggs  are  laid  in  a  cluster  on  a  leaf;  the  larvae  are  con- 
spicuous in  August  and  September.  In  some  of  the  species 
the  larvae  have  the  curious  habit  of  leaving  the  branch  upon 
which  they  are  feeding  when  the  time  to  molt  arrives,  the 
whole  colony  gathering  in  a  large  mass  on  the  trunk  of  the 
tree,  where  the  molt  takes  place.  The  pupa  state  is  passed 
in  the  ground,  in  a  very  light  cocoon  or  in  none  at  all,  and 
lasts  about  nine  months  in  the  species  that  we  have  bred. 

The  White-tipped  Moth,  Edema  albifrons  (E-de'ma 
al'bi-frons). — This  beautiful  moth,  which  is  quite  common, 
can  be  easily  recognized  by  the  accompanying  figure  (Fig. 
•g^^v  /  ^^  314);  the  white  patch,  which 

^^fS^^^^^^^^Sfs  extends  along  the  costa  of  the 
RF  f°re  wing  for  half  the  length 

•*.-  |&        from  the  tip,  being  very  char- 

**•*-->*"  5    I^KHr         acteristic.     The  larva  (Fig.  315} 

%?  is  quite  common  in  the  autumn 

FIG.  y+.-Edema  albifrons.  on  leaves  of  Oak.        It   IS  SniOOth 

and  shining,  with  no  hairs;  along  each  side  of  the  back 
there  is  a  yellow  stripe,  and  between  these,  on  the  back, 
fine  black  lines  on  a  pale  lilac  ground  ;  on  each  side  below  the 
yellow  stripe  there  are  three  black  lines,  the  lowest  one  just 
above  the  spiracles.  The  head  is  orange-red ;  and  there  is 
an  orange-red  hump  on  the  eighth  abdominal  segment. 


FIG.  315.— Edema  albifrons,  larva. 


The  Two-lined  Prominent,  Seirodonta  bilineata  (Seir-o- 
don'ta  bi-lin-e-a'ta).— The  larva  of  this  species  (Fig.  316)  is 
much  more  apt 'to  be  observed  than  the  adult.  It  is  com- 
mon in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and  in  early  autumn, 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


267 


feeding  on  the  leaves  of  oak,  elm,  and  basswood.  It 
measures  when  full  grown  about  one 
and  one  half  inches  in  length.  Its 

FIG.  yiG.-seirodonta  biiineata,    ground-color   is  usually  green,  but 
larva-  sometimes   claret-red.     There    is    a 

pale  yellow  stripe  along  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  on  each 
side  a  stripe  of  the  same  color.  The  course  of  these  side 
stripes  is  very  characteristic  ;  passing  back  from  the  head, 
they  converge  on  the  prothorax ;  on  the  mesothorax  and 
metathorax  they  are  separated  from  the  dorsal  line  only  by 
a  narrow  band  of  red  or  purple;  on  the  first  abdominal  seg- 
ment they  diverge  to  the  lateral  margin  of  the  back,  but 
converge  again  on  the  seventh  and  eighth  abdominal  seg- 
ments. This  yellow  subdorsal  line  is  bordered  without  by 
a  milk-white  stripe ;  and  extending  from  this  stripe  over  the 
side  of  the  body  there  is  a  whitish  shade  which  fades  out 
below.  The  moth  is  ash-colored,  with  the  fore  wings  crossed 
by  two  wavy  lines  between  which  the  wing  is  darker ;  be- 
tween the  outer  wavy  line  and  the  outer  margin  of  the  wing 
there  is  a  faint  band. 

The  Red-humped  Apple -worm,  (Edemasia  concinna 
(CEd-e-ma'si-a  con-cin'na).— The  larva  of  this  species  (Fig. 
3 1 7)  is  common  on  apple  and  allied  plants.  The  head  is  coral- 


FIG.  317.— (Edemasia  concinna,  larva. 

red,  and  there  is  a  hump  of  the  same  color  on  the  back  of  the 
first  abdominal  segment ;  the  body  is  striped  with  slender 
black,  yellow,  and  white  lines,  and  has  two  rows  of  black 


268  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

spines  along  the  back,  and  other  shorter  ones  upon  the  sides. 
When  not  eating,  the  larvae  remain  close  together,  some- 
times completely  covering  the  branch  upon  which  they  rest. 
This  species  passes  the  winter  in  the  pupa  state.  The  adults 
appear  in  June  and  July. 

The  Mocha-stone  Moths,  Ichthyura  (Ich-thy-u'ra). — To 
the  genus  Ichthyura  belong  several  species  of  brownish-gray 
moths,  whose  fore  wings  are  crossed  by  irregular  whitish 
lines.  It  was  these  peculiar  markings,  resembling  somewhat 
those  of  a  moss-agate,  that  suggested  the  popular  name 
given  above.  The  larvae  feed  on  poplar  and  willow,  and 
conceal  themselves  within  nests  made  by  fastening  leaves 
together.  Our  most  common  species  is  the  following : — 

The  Poplar  Mocha-stone  Moth,  IchtJiyura  inclusa  (I.  in- 
clu'sa). — The  adult  (Fig.  318)  is  a  brownish-gray  moth,  with 
the  fore  wings  crossed  by  three  irregu- 
lar  whitish  lines.  The  basal  line  is 
broken  near  the  middle  of  the  wing ; 
afid  the  intermediate  one  forms  an  in- 
verted  Y,  the  main  stem  of  which  joins 
FIG. y*.-ichthyura  inciusa.  the  third  line  near  the  inner  margin  of 
the  wing,  making  with  it  a  prominent  V.  These  lines  are 
bordered  without  by  rust-red  ;  there  is  a  chocolate-colored 
spot  near  the  apex  of  the  fore  wings,  and  an  irregular  row 
of  blackish  dots  near  the  outer  margin.  The  hairs  of  the 
thorax  form  a  prominent  crest,  the  fore  side  of  which  is  a 
rich  dark  brown.  The  hind  wings  are  crossed  by  a  wavy 
band,  which  is  light  without  and  dark  within. 

The  eggs  are  nearly  spherical  and  smooth;  they  are 
deposited  in  a  cluster  a  single  layer  deep  on  a  leaf  (Fig. 
319)-  When  the  larvae  hatch  they  make  a  nest  either  by 
fastening  several  leaves  together  or,  as  is  the  case  when 
they  infest  poplar,  by  folding  the  two  halves  of  a  single  leaf 
together;  frequently  in  the  latter  case  the  tip  of  the  leaf  is 
folded  in  as  shown  in  the  figure.  Within  this  nest  the  entire 
colony  lives,  feeding  on  the  parenchyma,  and  causing  the 


LEPIDOPTEtA.  269 

leaf  to  turn  brown.  Later  other  leaves  are  added  to  this 
nest  or  additional  nests  are  made  among  adjoining  leaves. 
All  of  these  infested  leaves  are  securely  fastened  to  the  twig 
by  bands  of  silk.  When  the  larvae  become  large  they  leave 
their  nests  at  night  to  feed  upon  other  leaves.  These  they 
entirely  consume  excepting  the  petioles,  midribs,  and  larger 


FIG.  319.— Eggs,  larva,  and  nest  of  Ichthyura  inclusa. 

veins.  We  have  seen  on  poplar  a  nest  composed  of  only 
three  leaves  which  contained  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
half-grown  larvae  ;  all  of  the  leaves,  about  thirty  in  number, 
arising  from  the  end  of  the  branch  bearing  this  nest  had 
been  consumed. 

The  full-grown  larva  measures  one  and  one  half  inches 
in  length.  It  is  striped  with  pale  yellow  and  brownish 
black,  and  bears  a  pair  of  black  tubercles  close  together  on 
the  first  abdominal  segment,  and  a  similar  pair  on  the  eighth 
abdominal  segment.  The  cocoon  is  an  irregular  thin  web ; 
it  is  made  under  leaves  or  other  rubbish  on  the  ground. 
The  insect  remains  in  the  pupa  state  during  the  winter,  and 
emerges  as  a  moth  in  the  latter  part  of  June  or  later.  In 
the  South  this  species 
infests  willow  as  well 
as  poplar,  and  is 
double-brooded. 

Among  the  most 
grotesque  of  larvc-e  be- 
longing to  this  family  are  those  of  the  genus  Calodasys 


\ 


2;o  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

(Cce-lod'a-sys),  of  which  we  have  several  species.  One  of 
these  is  represented  by  Figure  320.  At  the  left  in  the  figure 
is  shown  a  front  view  of  the  longest  tubercle. 

Superfamily  GEOMETRINA  (Ge-o-me-tri'na). 
The  Geometrids  (Ge-om1  e-trids),  or  the  Measuring-worms, 
The  peculiar  way  in  which   the    larvae   of   Geometrids 
walk    attracts   general    attention,    and  has   won    for   them 
the    name   of    Measuring-worms 
*^Pi!&2^  (Fig-  321)-     As  children  we  had 

|H       \^^P^    *he  dislike  for  "worms"  that  is 
,8^,^>*  common   to  people  that  are   un- 

educated to  the  beauties   of  na- 

^^^^^^W  ture.     All  larvae  were  "  worms  "; 

and  we  never  thought  of  admir- 

FIG.  321. — A  Measuring-worm.  .  .,      .       ,  ..  f    ,  ,  c 

ing  their  beautiful  colors,  or  of 

watching  them  build  interesting  houses,  or  of  keeping  them 
till  they  spun  their  silken  cocoons.  But  the  measuring- 
worms  were  excepted  from  this  dislike.  We  always  found 
these  delicate,  greenish  or  yellowish  caterpillars  with  their 
looping  motion  vastly  interesting.  We  allowed  them  to 
measure  our  fingers  with  their  little  tickling  feet,  and  we 
counted  each  length  as  a  yard.  We  were  always  delighted 
with  the  way  they  had  of  standing  on  their  hind  legs,  rear- 
ing the  body  up  into  the  air,  and  moving  the  head  around, 
as  if  looking  at  the  scenery.  And  then,  if  one  became 
frightened  in  any  way,  it  would  drop  suddenly,  suspended 
by  a  silken  cord,  which  it  seemed  to  have  mysteriously  con- 
cealed in  its  mouth ;  and  down  it  would  go,  doubling  and 
whirling  around  and  around  frantically  until  it  reached  the 
ground. 

Sometimes  we  found  these  fellows  on  branches  of  trees, 
clinging  by  their  hind  legs,  standing  out  straight,  stiff,  and 
motionless,  and  appearing  like  twigs  of  the  tree.  We  had 
not  heard  then  of  protective  resemblances,  and  did  not 
know  that  the  assuming  of  this  strange  attitude  protected 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


271 


these  worms  from  the  sharp-eyed  birds.  If  so,  we  should 
have  been  still  more  interested  in  them  ;  and  we  should  have 
been  even  more  so  could  some  one  have  told  us  of  the 
transformation  of  these  loopers  first  into  pupae  and  then 
into  beautiful  moths.  But  in  those  days  comparatively  few 
people  thought  it  worth  while  to  study  insects. 

The  larvae  of  Geometrids  have  as  a  rule  only  the  last  two 
pairs  of  prolegs  well  developed  ;  and  hence,  as  the  middle 
part  of  the  body  is  not  supported,  they  are  unable  to  walk  in 
the  way  that  other  caterpillars  walk.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  the  loss  of  the  first  three  pairs  of  prolegs  is  the  result  of  the 
looping  gait  rather  than  the  cause  of  it.  That  is  to  say,  the 
ancient  Geometrid  lar- 
vae acquired  the  habit 
of  looping,  after  which 
the  prolegs  under  the 
middle  of  the  body, 
being  unnecessary  and 
not  used,  dwindled 
away  in  succeeding 
generations.  In  the 
case  of  a  few  members 
of  this  family  three  or 
even  four  pairs  of  pro- 
legs  have  been  re- 
tained. 

The  Geometrid  lar- 
vae are  mostly  leaf-eat- 
ing, and  some  species, 
as  the  Canker-worms, 
occur  in  such  large 
numbers  as  to  be 
serious  pests. 

The  pupae  are  slender,  and  some  species  are  green  or 
mottled  in  color  in  this  state.  The  pupa  state  is  passed  in  a 
very  flimsy  cocoon  or  in  a  cell  in  the  ground. 


FlG.  323._wings  of  C 


2/2  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  moths  are  of  medium  size,  sometimes  small,  but  only 
rarely  very  large.  Usually  the  body  is  slender,  and  the 
wings  broad  and  delicate  in  appearance.  This  appearance  is 
due  to  the  fineness  of  the  scales  with  which  the  wings  are 
clothed.  These  moths  occur  on  the  borders  of  woods  and  in 
forests,  rarely  in  meadows  and  pastures.  Their  flight  is 
neither  strong  nor  long  sustained.  When  at  rest  the  wings 
are  spread  horizontally  and  scarcely  overlap  each  other. 

The  distinguishing  features  in  the  venation  of  the  wings 
of  the  Geometrina  are  that  vein  Vs  of  the  fore  wings  is  not 
more  closely  joined  to  cubitus  than  to  radius, 
cubitus  being  apparently  three-branched,  and 
that  the  basal  part  of  vein  II  of  the  hind 
wings  makes  a  prominent  bend  into  the  hu- 
meral angle  of  the  wing  (Figs.  322,  323).* 
Except  in  the  more  specialized  forms  where 
it  has  disappeared  there  is  a  rudiment  of  vein  I  of  the 
hind  wings.  This  usually  extends  from  near  the  base  of  the 
frenulum  to  the  angle  in  vein  II  (Figs.  322,  324).  In  Eudule 
(Fig.  323)  and  allied  forms  the  rudiment  of  vein  I  lies  some 
distance  from  the  margin  of  the  wing. 

There  occur  in  our  fauna  representatives  of  five  families; 
these  can  be  separated  by  the  following  table  : — 
A.  Vein  V»  of  the  hind  wings  wanting,  being  represented  merely  by  a 
fold  in  the  wing  (Fig.  327).    p.  277.  ENNOMIDJE. 

AA.  Vein  Va  of  the  hind  wings  present. 

B.  Vein  Va  of  the  hind  wings  arising  much  nearer  to  vein  Vi  than 
to  vein  V,  (Fig.  343).  Wings  usually  green,  p.  287. 

GEOMETRID^E. 

BB.  Vein  Va  of  the  hind  wings  arising  nearly  midway  between 
veins  V,  and  V,  or  nearer  to  vein  Va  than  to  vein  Vi.  Wings 
rarely  green. 

*  In  the  more  specialized  forms  the  humeral  angle  is  greatly  expanded 
(Fig.  343),  and  in  some  the  frenulum  is  completely  supplanted  by  it  (Fig.  335). 
The  loss  of  the  frenulum  in  this  family,  however,  occurs  only  in  highly  spe- 
cialized forms  ;  while  in  that  series  of  families  that  we  have  called  the  Fren- 
ulum-losers  it  has  occurred  in  all  except  a  very  few  extremely  generalized 
forms. 


LEPID  OP  TERA .  2?$ 

C.  Veins  II  and  III  of  hind  wings  extending  distinctly  separate 
from  each  other,  except  that  they  are  connected  by  a  cross 
vein  near  the  middle  of  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  335).  p.  282. 

HYDRIOMENID^E. 

CC.  Veins  II  and  III  of  hind  wings  approximated  or  coalesced 
for  a  greater  or  less  distance. 

D.  Veins  II  and  III  of  the  hind  wings  closely  approximated 
but  not  coalesced  along  the  second  fourth  (more  or  less)  of 
the  discal  cell. 

E.  Veins  III  and  Vi  of  hind  v/ings  separating  at  or  before  the 
apex  of  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  327).    p.  277.          ENNOMID^G. 
EE.  Veins  III  and  Vi  of  hind  wings  coalesced  for  a  consider- 
able distance  beyond  the  apex  of  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  324). 

p.  273.  MONOCTENIID.E. 

DD.  Veins  II  and  III  of  hind  wings  coalesced  for  a  greater  or 
less  distance. 

E.  Veins  II  and  III  of  the  hind  wings  coalesced  for  a  short 
distance  near  the  beginning  of  the  second  fourth  of  the 
discal  cell,  thence  rapidly  diverging  (Fig.  341),  p.  286. 

STERRHID^;. 

EE.  Veins  II  and  III  of  the  hind  wings  coalesced  to  or  be- 
yond the  middle  of  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  334). 
F.  Fore  wings  with  one  or  two  accessory  cells,     p.  282. 

HYDRIOMENID/E. 
FF.  Fore  wings  without  an  accessory  cell  (Alsophzla). 

,  MONOCTENIID^E. 


Family  MONOCTENIID.E  (Mo-noc-te-ni'i-dae). 
The  Monoctemids  (Mon-oc-te' ni-ids). 

This  family  includes  only  a  small  number  of  North 
American  species ;  but  among  them  are  those  that  are  the 
most  important  to  us  from  an  economic  standpoint  of  all  the 
Geometrids. 

The  family  is  also  of  especial  interest  from  a  scientific 
point  of  view;  for  to  it  belong  the  most  primitive  forms  of 
the  Geometrina,  certain  genera,  found  in  Australia,  being 
closely  allied  to  the  Notodontidae,  according  to  the  observa- 
tions of  Mr.  Meyrick. 


2/4 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


In  the  typical  forms,  vein  Va  of  the  hind  wings  is  present, 
and  veins  II  and  III  of  the  hind  wings  are  closely  approxi- 
mate, but  do  not  co- 
alesce along  the  second 
fourth  of  the  discal  cell 
(Fig.  324).  In  many  gen- 
era veins  III  and  V,  of 
the  hind  wings  coalesce 
beyond  the  apex  of  the 
discal  cell  (Fig.  324). 
This  character  is  of  use 
in  distinguishing  certain 
members  of  this  family 
from  those  of  the  En- 
nomidae  that  retain  vein 
Va  of  the  hind  wings. 
In  that  family  a  similar 
coalescence  of  veins  III 
and  V,  does  not  take 
place  till  after  the  loss 
of  vein  Va.  In  one  of 
our  genera  veins  II  and  III  of  the  hind  wings  coalesce 
along  the  second  fourth  of  the  discal  cell,  as  they  do  in  the 
Hydriomenidae  ;  but  the  absence  of  an  accessory  cell  in  the 
fore  wings  at  once  distinguishes  this  genus  from  the  Hydri- 
omenids.  The  following  species  are  our  best  known  repre- 
sentatives of  the  family. 

The  Firstborn  Geometer,  Brephos  infans  (Bre'phos  in'- 
fans). — This  interesting  species  has 
been  found  only  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  our  country ;  its  range  is  from 
Labrador  to  New  York.  It  is  a 
blackish-brown  moth  with  the  fore 
wings  marked  with  pinkish  white  and 

the  hind  wings  with  reddish  orange  ^  ™-Bre*hos  **""•  male- 
(F'g-  325).     The  specimen  figured  is  a  male.     In  the  female 


FIG.  324.-Winfi:s  of  Brefhos  infans. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  2?$ 

the  black  border  on  the  outer  margin  of  the  hind  wings  is 
narrower,  and  the  subterminal  light  band  on  the  fore  wings 
is  more  distinctly  marked.  The  early  stages  of  this  species 
are  unknown ;  but  the  larvae  of  European  species  feed  upon 
birch  and  poplar.  With  these  the  prolegs  are  all  present ; 
but  the  first  three  pairs  are  stunted.  As  this  is  probably  the 
most  primitive  Geometer  occurring  in  our  fauna,  we  suggest 
the  popular  name  Firstborn  for  it.  In  Germany  an  allied 
species  is  known  as  the  Jungfernkind. 

Canker-worms. — In  many  parts  of  our  country  Canker- 
worms  are  extremely  abundant.  In  such  localities  they  are 
among  the  more  important  of  insect  pests,  often  completely 
stripping  the  foliage  from  fruit  and  shade  trees.  There  are 
two  distinct  species  of  Canker-worms;  but  they  resemble 
each  other  so  closely  that  they  were  long  confounded  ;  and 
to  this  day  they  are  distinguished  only  by  entomologists. 
The  two  species  agree  in  being  loopers  or  measuring-worms 
in  the  larval  state,  in  the  possession  of  ample  wings  by  the 
adult  male,  and  in  the  adult  female  being  wingless.  They 
differ  in  structural  characters,  as  indicated  below,  and  also  to 
a  certain  extent  in  habits.  In  one  species  the  greater  num- 
ber of  moths  mature  in  the  autumn  and  emerge  from  the 
ground  at  this  season ;  in  the  other  species  the  insects  re- 
main in  the  pupa  state  during  the  winter,  emerging  as  moths 
in  the  spring.  The  two  species  are  therefore  appropriately 
designated  as  the  Fall  Canker-worm  and  the  Spring  Canker- 
worm  respectively. 

The  Spring  Canker-worm,  Paleacrita  vernata  (Pal-e-ac'ri-ta 
ver-na'ta). — The  eggs  are  ovoid  in  shape,  and  are  secreted  in 
irregular  masses,  usually  under  loose  scales  of  bark  or  be- 
tween the  leaflets  of  the  expanding  buds.  The  larvae  hatch 
about  the  time  the  leaves  expand,  and  become  full  grown  in 
from  three  to  four  weeks.  They  vary  greatly  in  color,  and 
are  marked  on  the  back  with  eight  narrow,  pale,  longitudinal 
lines  which  are  barely  discernible ;  the  two  lateral  lines  of  each 
side  are  much  farther  apart  than  the  others ;  and  there  are 


276 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


no  prolegs  on  the  fifth  abdominal  segment.  The  pupa  state 
is  passed  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  a  simple  earthen 
cell,  which  is  lined  with  very  few  silken  threads.  The  adult 
moths  usually  emerge  early  in  the  spring  before  the  leaves 
expand ;  but  they  sometimes  appear  late  in  the  fall,  or  on 
warm  days  during  the  winter  when  the  ground  is  thawed. 
In  both  sexes  the  adult  of  this  species  is  distinguished  by 
the  presence  of  two  transverse  rows  of  stiff  reddish  spines, 
pointing  backwards,  on  each  of  the  first  seven  abdominal  seg- 
ments. In  the  male  the  venation  of  the  wings  very  closely 
resembles  that  of  Brephos  (Fig.  324);  veins  II  and  III  of  the 
hind  wings  although  closely  approximate  do  not  coalesce, 
and  veins  III  and  V,  coalesce  for  a  considerable  distance  be- 
yond the  apex  of  the  discal  cell. 

The  Fall  Canker-worm,  Alsophila  pometaria  (Al-soph'i-la 
pom-e-ta'ri-a). — The  eggs  appear  as  if  cut  off  at  the  top,  and 
have  a  central  puncture  and  a  brown  circle  near  the  border 
of  the  disk.  They  are  laid  side  by  side  in  regular  rows  and 
compact  batches,  and  are  generally  exposed.  They  hatch 
in  the  spring  at  the  time  the  leaves  appear ;  and  the  larvae 
mature  in  about  three  weeks.  The  larva  is  of  a  pale  brown- 
ish color  marked  with  dark  brown  and  yellow ;  the  body  is 
marked  on  the  back  with  six  broad  and  very  distinct  pale 
lines,  those  of  each  side  equidistant ;  and  there  is  a  pair  of 
distinct  prolegs  on  the  fifth  abdominal  segment.  As  in  the 
preceding  species  the  pupa  state  is  passed  beneath  the 
ground,  but  this  species  makes  a  perfect  cocoon  of  fine 
densely  spun  silk.  The  adult  moth 
usually  emerges  in  the  fall,  generally 
beginning  about  the  middle  or  latter 
part  of  October ;  although  a  con- 
siderable number  come  out  of  the 
earth  in  the  winter  during  warm 

F.G.  3a6.-x/,J^r~ weather   and   in    the    spring.      The 
moths   of   both  sexes  lack   the   ab- 
dominal spines  characteristic  of  the  Spring  Canker-worm. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  277 

The  male  is  represented  by  Figure  326.  In  this  species 
veins  II  and  III  of  the  hind  wings  coalesce  for  a  considerable 
distance  along  the  second  fourth  of  the  discal  cell ;  and  veins 
III  and  V,  of  the  hind  wings  separate  at  the  apex  of  the  dis- 
cal cell. 

The  two  species  of  Canker-worms  are  sufficiently  alike 
in  habits  to  warrant  our  combating  them  by  similar  methods. 
The  fact  that  in  each  the  female  is  wingless  and  is  thus 
forced  to  climb  up  the  trunks  of  trees  in  order  to  place  her 
eggs  in  a  suitable  place  has  suggested  the  method  of  defence 
that  has  been  most  generally  used  in  the  past.  This  is  to 
place  something  about  the  trunks  of  the  trees  which  will 
make  it  impossible  for  the  wingless  female  to  ascend  them. 
Some  viscid  substance,  as  tar,  printers'  ink,  or  melted  rubber, 
either  painted  on  the  trunk  of  the  tree  or  upon  a  paper  band 
which  is  tacked  closely  about  the  tree,  is  the  means  usually 
adopted.  Many  other  devices  have  been  recommended. 
In  the  use  of  this  method  of  prevention,  operations  should 
be  begun  in  the  autumn,  even  when  it  is  the  Spring  Canker- 
worm  that  is  to  be  combated.  For  in  this  species  some  of 
the  moths  emerge  in  the  fall  or  during  the  winter. 

Although  the  method  just  described  is  still  the  most  avail- 
able one  when  tall  shade-trees  are  to  be  protected,  it  is  now 
rarely  used  in  orchards.  Here  the  spraying  of  the  trees  with 
Paris-green  water  soon  after  the  leaves  appear  is  found 
more  practicable.  This  method  has  also  the  advantage  of 
enabling  the  fruit-grower  to  reach  other  important  pests,  as 
the  Codlin-moth,  at  the  same  time. 

Family  ENNOMlD-fi  (En-nom'i-dae). 

The  Ennomids  (En' no-mids). 

Nearly  all  of  the  members  of  this  family  can  be  easily 
recognized  as  such  by  the  fact  that  vein  V,  of  the  hind  wings 
is  wanting,  being  represented  merely  by  a  fold.  In  a  few 
species  this  vein  has  been  preserved;  these  can  be  recog- 


278 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


nized  by  the  following  combination  of  characters  :  Vein  V, 
of  the  hind  wings  does  not  arise  much  nearer  to  vein  V\ 

than  to  vein  V3  (as  it 
does  in  the  Geomet- 
ridae),  veins  II  and  III 
of  the  hind  wings  are 
closely  approximate 
but  do  not  coalesce  along 
the  second  fourth, 
more  or  less,  of  the 
discal  cell  (Fig.  327), 
and  veins  III  and  V\ 
of  the  hind  wings  do 
not  coalesce  beyond 
the  apex  of  the  discal 
cell.  This  last  char- 
acter does  not  apply- 
to  the  family  as  a 
whole,  but  merely  to 
those  that  retain  vein 
V,  of  the  hind  wings; 

jn      some      of      thOSe      ill 


FIG.  327.-Wings  of  Caripeta  angusti 

which  this  vein  is  lost,  the  coalescence  of  veins  III  and  V, 
is  carried  beyond  the  apex  of  the  cell. 

This  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  families  of  the  Geome- 
trina  and  contains  the  greater  number  of  our  larger  species. 
The  following  will  serve  as 
illustrations  of  it  :  — 

The  Notched-wing  Ge- 
ometer, Ennomos  magnarius 
(En'no-mos  mag-na'ri-us),  is 
one  of  the  largest  of  our 
Geometrids.  The  larva  is 
a  common  looper  upon 
maple,  chestnut,  and  birch 
trees,  and  measures  about  two  and  one  third  inches  in  length 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


279 


FIG.  yg.—Diaitictis  ribearia. 


when  full  grown.  It  spins  a  rather  dense,  spindle-shaped 
cocoon  within  a  cluster  of  leaves.  The  moth  (Fig.  328)  is 
ochre-yellow  with  a  reddish  tinge.  The  wings  are  shaded 
towards  the  outer  margin  with  brown,  and  are  thickly  spotted 
with  small  brown  dots. 

The  Currant  Span-worm,  Diastictis  ribearia  (Di-as-tic'tis 
rib-e-a'ri-a).— There  are  several  species  of  insects  that  are 
popularly  known  as  currant- 
worms.    The  most  common 
of  these  are  larvae  of  saw- 
flies,    which    can    be    easily 
recognized     by     the     large 
number     of    prolegs     with 
which  the  abdomen  is  fur- 
nished.    In  addition  to  the 
saw-flies  there   is  a  yellow 
looper  spotted  with  black,  which  often  appears  in  such  great 
numbers  on  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes  as  to  suddenly 
strip  them  of  their  foliage.     This  larva  has  been  named  the 
Currant    or  Gooseberry  Span-worm.     When  full  grown   it 
measures  about  one  inch  in  length,  and  is  of  a  bright  yellow 
color,  with  white  lines  on  the  sides  and  with  numerous  black 
spots  and  round  dots.     It  has  only  four  prolegs.     There  is 
only  a  single  brood ;  the  larva  matures  in  May  or  June ;  the 
pupa  state  lasts  about  a  fortnight ;  the  moth  flies  during  the 
summer  months  and  oviposits  on  the  twigs  of  the  plants  ; 

and  the  eggs  remain  un- 
hatched  till  the  following 
spring.  The  moth  (Fig. 
329)  is  pale  yellow,  with 
the  wings  marked  by  ir- 
regular dusky  spots,  which 
sometimes  form  one  or  two 
indefinite  bands  across  them. 

The  Chaill-dotted   GeOni- 

eter,  Cingilia  catcnaria  (Cin-gil'i-a  cat-e-na'ri-a). — This  moth 


28o  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

has  snow-white  wings  marked  with  zigzag  lines  and  with 
dots  of  black  as  shown  in  Fig.  330.  The  head  is  ochreous- 
yellow  in  front ;  and  the  thorax  is  yellowish  at  the  base  of 
the  patagia.  The  moth  flies  during  September  and  October. 
The  larva  feeds  on  various  shrubs  and  trees.  The  pupa 
state  is  passed  in  a  slight  but  well-formed  web  of  yellow 
threads,  which  is  formed  between  twigs  or  leaves,  and 
through  which  the  pupa  can  be  seen. 

The  Evergreen  Cleora,  Cleora  semiclusaria  (Cle'o-ra 
sem-i-clu-sa'ri-a).— This  beautiful  moth  (Fig.  331)  is  common 
in  the  vicinity  of  pines,  spruce, 
fir,  and  hemlock  during  August 
and  September.  It  varies  from 
a  smoky-ash  color  to  almost 
snow  -  white ;  the  wings  are 
marked  with  black.  The  larva 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  Conifers. 
It  is  reddish  yellow  above,  with 


on  each  side  are  two  pairs  of  black  hair-lines.  There  are 
black  spots  above  on  the  segments.  When  full  grown  it  is 
a  little  more  than  an  inch  long  and  spins  a  loose  cocoon 
among  the  leaves.  The  chrysalid  is  green  with  white 
stripes  and  is  very  pretty. 

The  Pepper-and-salt  Currant-moth,  Biston  cognataria 
(Bis'ton  cog-na-ta'ri-a). —  This 
moth  (Fig.  332)  differs  remark- 
ably in  appearance  from  most 
Geometrids,  the  body  being 
stouter,  and  the  wings  appearing 
heavier.  It  can  be  easily  recog- 
nized by  its  evenly  distributed 
pepper-and-salt  markings.  The  FIG.  33*.-*"" 
larva  feeds  on  various  plants,  but  is  found  most  often  on 
currant. 

The  Lime-tree  Winter-moth,  Erannis  tiliaria  (E-ran'nis 


LEPIDOPTERA.  28 1 

til-i-a'ri-a).— This  species  (Fig.  333)  resembles  the  Canker- 
worms  in  many  particulars.  The  larva  is  a  looper  which 
infests  both  fruit  and  forest  trees;  and  in  the  adult  state  the 
male  has  well-developed  wings,  while  the  female  is  wingless. 
The  eggs  are  oval,  of  a  pale  yellow  color,  and  covered 
with  a  network  of  raised  lines.  They  are  thrust  by  the 


FIG.  333. — Erannis  tiliaria.    (From  the  Author's  Report  for  1879.) 

female  under  loose  bark  and  in  crevices  on  the  trunk  and 
large  limbs.  They  hatch  in  May,  and  the  larvae  attain  their 
full  growth  in  the  latter  part  of  June.  The  larva  is  yellow, 
marked  with  ten  crinkled  black  lines  along  the  top  of  the 
back;  the  head  is  rust-colored,  and  the  venter  yellowish 
white ;  when  full  grown  it  measures  about  one  and  one  fifth 
inches  in  length.  The  pupa  state  is  passed  in  the  ground, 
from  three  to  six  inches  below  the  surface.  The  moths 
issue  in  October,  and  then  the  wingless  females  ascend  the 


282 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


trees  to  oviposit  as  do  the  females  of  the  Canker-worms. 
The  female  is  represented  in  the  lower  left-hand  part  of  the 
figure.  She  is  grayish  in  color,  with  two  black  spots  on  the 
back  of  each  segment  except  the  last,  which  has  only  one. 
The  male  has  buff  fore  wings,  with  a  central  spot  and  a  band 
beyond  the  middle,  while  the  hind  wings  are  much  lighter. 
This  insect  can  be  combated  by  the  same  methods  as  are 
used  against  canker-worms. 

Family  HYDRIOMENIDS  (Hyd-ri-o-men'i-dae). 
The  Hydriomenids  (Hyd-ri-o-me'nids). 

The  Hydriomenids  are  easily  recognized  by  the  structure 
of  their  wings.  In  the  fore  wings  the  branches  of  radius 
anastomose  so  as  to  form 
one  or  two  accessory  cells; 
and  in  the  hind  wings 
veins  II  and  III  coalesce 
along  the  second  fourth 
of  the  discal  cell,  the  co- 
alescence extending  to  or 
beyond  the  middle  of  the 


F.6-  334- Wings  of  Eudul,  mendica.          F,G.  335-Wings  of  Dyifteri*  abo,  tivaHa. 


LEPIDQPTERA.  283 

discal  cell  (Fig.  334).  The  only  exception  to  these  char- 
acters known  to  us  is  shown  by  certain  genera  (e.g.,  Heteroph- 
leps  and  Dyspteris)  in  which,  owing  to  a  large  expansion  of 
the  costal  area  of  the  hind  wings,  veins  II  and  III  have 
been  pulled  apart  as  it  were,  and  are  connected  only  by 
a  cross-vein  near  the  middle  of  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  335). 
In  a  single  genus  (Paleacrita)  not  belonging  to  this* family 
veins  II  and  III  of  the  hind  wings  coalesce  to  the  middle  of 
the  discal  cell ;  but  this  genus  lacks  the  accessory  cell  in  the 
fore  wings  characteristic  of  this  family. 

This  family  ranks  second  in  size  among  the  Geometrid 
families,  and  contains  many  common  species. 

The  White-striped  Black,  Eucha?ca  albovittata  (Eu-chce'ca 
al-bo-vit-ta'ta). — This  beautiful  little  moth,  which  occurs 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  is  the  most  easily  recog- 
nized member  of  the  family.  It  expands  about  seven  eighths 
of  an  inch,  and  is  of  a  uniform  black  color,  with  a  single,  very 
broad  white  band  extending  across  the  fore  wing  from  the 
middle  of  the  costa  to  the  inner  angle,  where  it  is  usually 
forked.  The  fringe  of  the  wings  is  white  at  the  apical  and 
inner  angles  of  both  pairs ;  sometimes  the  white  is  lacking 
on  the  inner  angle  of  the  hind  wings.  The  early  stages  of 
this  beautiful  moth  are  unknown. 

The  Spear-marked  Black,  Plemyria  hastata  (Ple-myr'i-a 
has-ta'ta). — This  is  another  black-and-white  species,  occur- 
ring from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  It  is  much  larger  than 
the  preceding,  expanding  one  and  four  tenths  inches.  It  is 
black,  striped  and  spotted  with  white.  It  varies  greatly  as 
to  the  number  and  extent  of  the  white  markings.  The 
most  constant  mark  is  a  broad  white  band  crossing  the 
middle  of  the  fore  wings,  and  often  continued  across  the 
hind  wings.  Near  the  middle  of  its  course  on  the  fore 
wing  this  band  makes  a  sharp  angle  pointing  outward ;  and 
just  beyond  the  apex  of  this  angle  there  is  usually  a  white 
spot.  This  spot  and  angular  band  together  form  a  mark 
shaped  something  like  the  head  of  a  spear.  In  some  speci- 


284 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


mens  the  white  predominates ;  other  specimens  are  almost 
entirely  black,  excepting  the  spear-mark.  According  to  Eu- 
ropean authorities  the  larva  is  brown  or  blackish  brown,  with 
a  darker  line  along  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  a  row  of  horse- 
shoe-shaped spots  on  the  sides.  It  feeds  on  birch  and  sweet 
gale.  It  is  gregarious,  a  colony  of  larvae  spinning  together 
the  leaves  of  the  food-plant,  and  thus  forming  a  nest  within 
which  they  live  and  feed.  The 
larva  has  not  yet  been  observed 
in  this  country. 

The  Scallop-shell  Moth, 
Calocalpe  nndulata  (Cal-o-cal'pe 
un-du-la'ta). — This  is  a  pretty 


FIG.  336.— Calocalpe  nndulata. 

moth,  with  its  yellow  wings 
crossed  by  so  many  fine,  zigzag, 
dark  brown  lines  that  it  is  hard 
to  tell  which  of  the  two  is  the 
ground-color  (Fig.  336).  It 
lays  its  eggs  in  a  cluster  on 
a  leaf  near  the  tip  of  a  twig 
of  cherry,  usually  wild  cherry. 
The  larvae  make  a  snug  nest 
by  fastening  together  the  leaves 
at  the  end  of  the  twig;  and 
within  this  nest  (Fig.  337)  they 
live,  adding  new  leaves  to  the  ^ 

•  ,  ,  FIG.  337. — Eggs  and  nest  of  Calocalpe 

outside  as  more  food  is  needed.  unduiata. 

The  leaves  die  and  become  brown,  and  thus  render  the  nest 

conspicuous.     The  larvae  are  black  above,  with  four  white 


LEPIDOPTERA.  285 

stripes,  and  flesh-colored  below.  When  full  grown  they 
descend  to  the  ground  to  transform,  and  pass  the  winter  in 
the  pupa  state. 

The  Diverse-line  Moth,  Eustroma  diversilineata(£\\s-\.vQ'. 
ma  di-ver-si-lin-e-a'ta)'.— This  moth  has  pale  ochre-yellow 
wings,  with  a  brownish  shade  near  the  outer  margin,  and 
crossed  by  many  diverging  brown  lines  (Fig.  338).  It  varies 
from  one  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches  in  expanse.  We 
have  often  found  this  moth  on  the  side  of  our  room, 
resting  on  the  wall,  head  downward,  and  with  its  abdomen 
hanging  down  over  its  head  in  a  curious  manner.  The  larva 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  grape.  There  are  two  broods ;  the 
first  brood  infests  the  vines  during  June  ;  the  second,  in  the 
autumn  and  early  spring,  wintering  as  larvae. 


FIG.  338. — Eustronta  diversilineata.  FIG.  339. — Eudule  mcndica. 

The  Beggar,  Eudule  mendica  (Eu-du'le  men-di'ca). — One 
of  the  most  delicate  winged  moths  that  we  have  in  the 
Northern  Atlantic  States  is  this  species  (Fig.  339).  Although- 
the  wings  are  yellowish  white  in  color  they  are  almost  trans- 
parent. On  the  fore  wings  there  are  two  transverse  rows  of 
pale  gray  spots,  and  a  single  spot  near  the  outer  margin  be- 
tween veins  V3  and  VII,.  (This  spot  was  indistinct  in  the 
specimen  figured.)  The  moth  is  common  in  midsummer. 

We  do  not  know  what  fancy  led  the  naturalist  that  de- 
scribed this  species  to  name  it  mendica.  But  it  seems  ap- 
propriate now  to  call  it  a  mendicant ;  for  during  the  thirty 
years  that  have  elapsed  since  the  species  was  described  it 
has  not  been  allowed  a  position  in  its  own  family,  but  has 
been  catalogued  in  the  Lithosiidae,  although  it  was  shown 
to  be  a  Geometrid  long  ago. 


286 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  Bad-wing,  Dyspteris  abortivaria  (Dys'pte-ris  a-bor- 
ti-va'ri-a).— It  is  easy  to  recognize  this  moth  (Fig.  340)  by 
the  peculiar  shape  of  its  wings,  the 
hind  wings  being  greatly  reduced  in 
size.  It  is  of  a  beautiful  pea-green 
color,  with  two  white  bands  on  the 
fore  wings  and  one  on  the  hind 
wings.  Its  color  has  led  to  its  being 
placed  heretofore  in  the  Geometridae ; 

FlG.  340.— Dyspteris  abortivaria.    \>^    {fog   structure   of    its   willgS  sllOWS 

it  to  be  an  Hydriomenid.     The  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves  of 
grape,  which  it  rolls. 

Family  STERRHID^:  (Ster'rhi-dae). 

The  Sterrhids  (Ster'rhids). 

The  members  of  this  family  are  most  easily  recognized 
by  the  venation  of  the 
hind  wings  (Fig.  341).  In 
these  veins  II  and  III  co- 
alesce for  a  short  distance 
near  the  beginning  of  the 
second  fourth  of  the  dis- 
cal  cell  and  then  diverge 
rapidly.  The  greater 
number  of  our  common 
species  are  of  medium 
size,  with  whitish  wings 
crossed  by  from  two  to 
four  indistinct  lines,  and 
with  the  head  black  in 
front  ;  some  are  pure 
white,  and  others  are 
brown  marked  with  red- 
dish lines.  About  one 
hundred  species  have 
been  found  in  this  country.  FlG.  34I._Wings  of  Synelys 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


287 


'      g  *  t**t*/  *-tt       \llcC- 

w 

FlG.  342.— Hirmatopis 
grataria. 


The    Chickweed    Geometer,    Hcematopis  grataria   (Hae- 
mat'o-pis    gra-ta'ri-a). — This    little    moth 
(Fig.  342)  is  very  common  in  our  meadows 
and  gardens  during  the  summer  and  au- 
tumn   months.     Its    wings    are    reddish 
yellow,  with  the    fringes   and   two  trans- 
verse bands  pink.     It  is  found  from  Maine 
to  Texas.     The   larva    feeds  on   the  common    chick-weed, 
Stellaria  media* 

Family  GEOMETRID^;  (Ge-o-met'ri-dae). 
The  Green  Geometrids  (G  e-om' e-trids). 
As  a  rule  the  members  of  this  family  are  bright  green  in 

color.  And  as  we  have 
but  one  other  common 
Geometrid  (Dysptcris,  p. 
286)  of  this  color,  the 
family  may  be  well  termed 
the  Green  Geometrids. 
vn,  The  distinctive  structure 
that  characterizes  this 
family  is  the  fact  that 
vein  Va  of  the  hind  wings 
arises  much  nearer  to 
vein  V,  than  to  vein  V, 
(Fig.  343).  In  this  family 
the  tendency  to  expan- 
sion of  the  humeral  angle 
of  the  hind  wings,  which 
is  exhibited  by  all  Geo- 
metrina,  and  which  is  cor- 
related with  the  promi- 
nent bend  into  this  angle 
of  vein  II,  characteristic 

FIG.  343.— Wings  of  Geometra  iridaria.  of      tllJS      SUper-family,      IS 

*  This  moth  is  figured  and   mentioned   here  because  it  is  one  of  our 

most  common  species,  and  not  as  a  typical  illustration  of  the  Sterrhidae.     Il 


VII, 


288  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

carried  farther  than  in  the  other  families  (except  in  the 
Dyspteris  division  of  the  Hydriomenidae).  In  fact,  in  all 
of  the  forms  known  to  the  writer,  the  humeral  angle  ex- 
tends a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  frenulum.  In 
the  fore  wings  there  is  also  a  more  marked  migration  of 
the  base  of  vein  V,  towards  radius  than  occurs  in  other 
Geometrid  families.  All  these  characteristics  lead  us  to 
consider  the  Geometridae  the  most  specialized  of  the  Geom- 
etrina. 

The  Raspberry  Geometer,  Synchlora  glaucaria  (Syn- 
chlo'ra  glau-ca'ri-a). — The  different  species  of  green  Geom- 
etrids  resemble  each  other  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is 
difficult  to  describe  any  one  of  them  in  a  few  words  so  that 
it  can  be  surely  distinguished.  The  wings  of  the  Raspberry 
Geometer  are  of  a  delicate  pale  green  color  crossed  by  two 
lines  of  a  lighter  shade,  and  when  expanded  measure  from 
one  half  inch  to  one  inch,  there  being  great  variation  in  size 
of  specimens.  The  larva  is  more  easily  distinguished  on 
account  of  its  curious  habits.  It  feeds  on  the  fruit  and 
foliage  of  raspberry,  but  chiefly  on  the  fruit.  It  covers  its 
body  by  attaching  to  it  bits  of  vegetable  matter,  so  that  it  is 
masked  beneath  a  tiny  heap  of  rubbish. 

Family  AUZATID^:  (Au-zat'i-dae). 
The  Auzatids  (Au-za'tids). 

Only  a  single  species  belonging  to  this  family  is  known 
to  occur  in  this  country.  This  is  a  small  moth  with  delicate 
snow-white  wings  which  expand  from  three  fourths  of  an 
inch  to  one  inch.  This  is  Eudeilinea  herminiata  (Eu-dei- 
lin'e-a  her-min-i-a'ta). 

In  the  form  of  the  body  and  in  the  structure  of  the  wings 
(Fig.  344)  the  members  of  this  family  closely  resemble  the 

differs  in  important  respects  from  the  typical  members  of  the  family,  and 
may  belong  elsewhere. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


289 


indi-  X— -~. 
ides.  I <^        a 


Drepanidae.     As  in  the  Drepanidae  vein  VII  appears  to  be 

four-branched,    and    the 

course  of  vein  II  of  the 

hind  wings   is  similar   in 

the  two   families,  except 

that  in  the  Auzatidae  this 

vein     anastomoses     with 

vein  III  beyond  the  discal 

cell;    but    the   extent    of 

this     anastomosis    varies 

greatly  in  different 

viduals    of     our    species. 

In     the     Auzatidae     the 

apex    of   the    fore  wings 

is  not  sickle-shaped  ;  and 

the  branches  of  radius  of 

the    fore    wings    coalesce 

as    in    the    Geometridae,  ^ — "VITi 

Veins     III3    and   III4    COal-        FIG.  344.— Wings  of  Eudetlinea  herminiata. 

escing  to  near  the  apex  of  the  wing.* 

Family  DREPANID^;  (Dre-pan'i-dae). 

The  Hook-tip  Moths. 
The  members  of  this  family  are  small,  slender-bodied 

moths,  which  can  be  easily  recognized  by  the  sickle-shaped 
apex  of  the  front  wings  (Fig.  345).  An 
approach  to  this  form  of  wing  is  pre- 
sented by  some  species  of  the  Satur- 
niidae  and  by  certain  Geometrids.  But 
the  former  are  large,  stout-bodied  moths  ; 

FIG.  345.— putypteryx  arcu-  and  the  latter  differ  in  wing  venation, 
cubitus  of  the  fore  wings  appearing  only 

*  In  the  Drepanidae  veins  IIIj+»  and  III4 } »  do  not  coalesce  from  the 
apex  of  the  discal  cell  outward  (Figs.  346  and  347);  but  veins  IIIj  and  II I4 
anastomose  for  a  greater  or  less  distance  near  the  apex  of  the  wing,  thus 
forming  an  accessory  cell. 


290 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


three-branched  with  them,  whereas  it  appears  four-branched 
in  the  Drepanidae  (Fig.  346). 

Although  the  humeral  angle  of  the  hind  wings  is  greatly 
developed  in  these  moths,  some  of  them  retain  the  frenulum. 


FIG.  346.— Wings  of  Oreta  rosea.  FIG.  347.— Wings  of  Platypteryx  arcuata 

When  the  frenulum  is  present  it  is  borne  at  the  end  of  a 
long  thickened  portion  of  the  wing,  so  that  it  is  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  point  where  the  wing  is  attached 
to  the  body  (Fig.  347).* 

The  larvae  are  remarkable   in   having  the  anal  prolegs 
rudimentary,  and  the  caudal  segment  prolonged  into  a  more 

*  We  class  the  Drepanidae  among  the  Frenulum-conservers,  although 
many  of  them  have  lost  the  frenulum.  Among  the  true  Frenulum-losers  the 
loss  of  the  frenulum  occurs  while  the  race  is  still  in  a  very  generalized  con- 
dition, no  trace  of  a  frenulum  being  found  among  these  insects  except  a  rudi- 
ment in  the  most  generalized  forms  (Bombyx,  Cicinnus).  In  the  Drepanidae, 
however,  the  frenulum  is  retained  by  very  highly  specialized  forms.  There  is 
a  striking  similarity  in  this  respect  between  this  family  and  the  more 
specialized  Geometrids. 


LEPIDOPTEKA.  29 1 

or  less  lizard-like  tail.  They  live  upon  the  foliage  of  shrubs 
and  trees,  and  transform  in  a  web  between  the  leaves,  or 
in  a  case  in  a  rolled  leaf. 

Only  a  small  number  of  species  occur  in  our  fauna;  at 
present  we  know  only  eight ;  and  all  but  one  of  these  pertain 
to  the  eastern  half  of  the  continent. 

Our  most  common  Hook-tip  Moth  is  Platypteryx  arcu- 
ata  (Pla-typ'te-ryx  ar-cu-a'ta).  This  species  is  of  a  dirty 
white  color  marked  with  dark  brownish  lines  and  bands  as 
shown  in  Figure  345.  Its  larva  feeds  upon  white  birch.  Pla- 
typteryx genicula  (P.  ge-nic'u-la),  another  eastern  species,  re- 
sembles the  preceding,  but  differs  in  being  of  a  light  ochre- 
yellow  color  and  in  the  course  of  the  wavy  lines  on  the  front 
wings.  A  third  similar  species  occurs  in  California;  this  is 
Platypteryx  siculifera  (P.  sic-u-lif'e-ra). 

Family  CYMATOPHORID^E  (Cym-a-to-phor'i-dae). 
The  Cymatophorids  (Cym-a-toph' o-rids). 

The  Cymatophoridae  include  moths  of  medium  size, 
with  elongated  wings.  The  front  wings  are  usually  slightly 
widened  at  the  inner  angle  (Fig.  348),  and  in  our  more 
common  species  are  conspicuously 
marked  with  wavy  or  zigzag  lines. 
The  antennae  are  filiform  and  more 
or  less  velvety  or  pubescent  in  the 
male,  and  the  maxillae  are  well 
developed.  The  moths  fly  by  day, 
and  when  at  rest  fold  their  wings  FlG.  ^.- 
roof-like  upon  the  abdomen. 

The  venation  of  the  wings  is  illustrated  by  Figure  349. 
The  important  features  to  be  noted  are  the  following:  In 
the  front  wing  vein  V,  arises  midway  between  veins  V,  and 
V3 ;  while  in  the  hind  wing  vein  V,  arises  much  nearer  to  V, 
than  to  V,.  In  the  hind  wing  the  subcosta  and  radius  are 
distinct,  and  vein  V,  is  joined  to  radius  by  a  comparatively 


292 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  larvae  are  naked, 
nil 


and 


long  cross-vein  (Fig.  349,  c.  z>.),  so  that  the  two  appear  to 
separate  before  the  end  of  the  discal  cell.  In  the  males  the 
tip  of  the  frenulum  is  knobbed. 

live  upon  the  leaves  of  shrubs 
and  trees.  They  often  con- 
ceal themselves  in  a  case,  made 
by  loosely  fastening  together 
leaves,  or  by  folding  a  single 
leaf. 

There  are  in  our  fauna  rep- 
resentatives of  only  four  or 
five  genera  belonging  to  this 
family  ;  and  the  species  that 
are  common  hardly  exceed 
this  number. 

One  of  the  more  common 
species  is  Thyatira  scripta 
(Thy-a-ti'ra  scrip'ta).  This 

has    faWtt-COlored    front 


Vll, 


FIG.  349,-Wingsof  Thyatirn  scripta 

conspicuously  marked  with  light  bands  and  zigzag  lines 
(Flg-  348).  According  to  Thaxter,  it  lays  its  eggs  late  in 
July,  in  chains  of  five  or  six,  on  the  leaves  of  raspberry,  upon 
which  the  larvae  feed.  The  mature  larva  is  rich  yellow- 
brown,  often  almost  black,  with  a  distinct  dorsal  black  line. 
The  lateral  portions  are  more  yellow  with  blackish  mottlings. 
When  at  rest  the  larva  either  elevates  the  cephalic  and  caudal 
ends  of  the  body,  like  the  Notodontids,  so  that  the  head 
rests  upon  the  caudal  segments,  or  conceals  itself  in  a  case 
formed  by  curling  down  the  edge  of  a  leaf.  It  makes  a  very 
slight  cocoon  late  in  August. 

Another  common  species  is  Pseudothyatira  cymatopho- 
roides  (Pseu-do-thy-a-ti'ra  cym-a-toph-o-roi'des).  This  spe- 
slightly  larger  than  the  preceding  one,  expanding 
nearly  two  inches.  The  front  wings  are  silky  gray  tinted 
with  rose.  They  are  marked  with  a  black  spot  at  the  base, 
a  double  or  triple  line,  forming  a  black  band  at  the  end  of 


LEPIDOPTERA.  293 

the  basal  third  of  the  wing,  two  black  spots  on  the  outer 
half  of  the  costa,  a  black  spot  at  the  inner  angle,  and  a  row 
of  black  points  on  the  outer  margin.  There  is  a  variety 
which  lacks  the  black  band  and  the  four  black  spots.  The 
larva  of  this  species  has  been  found  on  red  oak ;  it  is  of  a 
rich  yellow-brown,  mottled  with  fine  dark  lines,  and  lives  in 
a  case  made  by  fastening  leaves  together.  It  makes  a  slight 
cocoon  late  in  September ;  the  adult  emerges  in  June. 

Family  NOCTUID^:  (Noc-tu'i-dae). 
The  Owlet-moths  or  Noctuids  (Noc1  tu-ids). 

This  is  the  largest  of  all  of  the  families  of  the  Lepidop- 
tera  ;  more  than  eighteen  hundred  species  are  now  known  to 
occur  in  America  north  of  Mexico.  The  great  majority  of 
the  moths  that  fly  into  our  houses  at  night,  attracted  by 
lights,  are  members  of  this  family. 

The  nocturnal  habits  of  these  insects,  and  the  fact  that 
often  when  they  are  in  obscurity  their  eyes  shine  brightly, 
have  suggested  the  name  of  the  typical  genus  (Noctua,  from 
the  Latin  for  owl),  as  well  as  the  popular  name  Owlet-moths, 
by  which  they  are  known.  Similar  popular  names  have 
been  given  to  them  in  several  other  languages, 

Although  there  is  almost  no  question  regarding  the  lim- 
its of  this  family,  as  yet  no  structural  character  has  been 
found  by  which  they  can  be  distinguished  from  certain  other 
moths.  Neither  is  there  a  general  uniformity  of  appearance 
which  we  can  use  for  this  purpose,  as  the  family  includes 
great  variations  in  size,  form,  and  coloring.  But  most  of  the 
species  are  dull-colored  moths  of  medium  size. 

The  greatest  difficulty  arises  in  attempting  to  separate 
this  family  from  the  three  following.  Of  these  the  first  two 
(Pericopidae  and  Agaristidae)  differ  in  their  highly  contrast- 
ing colors,  as  pointed  out  in  the  analytical  table  (p.  212, 
N  and  NN).  In  the  third  of  these  families  (Lymantriidae) 
the  species  have  pectinate  antennae  and  do  not  have  ocelli. 


294 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Only  a  few  Noctuids  have  pectinate  antennae,  and  these, 
so  far  as  they  are  known  to  the  writer,  lack  ocelli. 

The  venation  of  the  wings  of  a  member  of  this  family  is 

represented  by  Fig- 
ure 350.  Vein  V,  of 
the  fore  wings  arises 
much  nearer  to  vein 
V3  than  to  vein  V, ; 
there  is  usually  an 
accessory  cell ;  and 
the  anal  vein  may 
be  forked  towards 
the  base  or  not.  On 
the  hind  wings  veins 
II  and  III  usually 
coalesce  for  a  short 
distance  near  the 
base  of  the  wing; 
vein  V4  may  be  either 


FIG.  350.— Wings  of  Agrotis  ypsilon. 


well  preserved  or 
much  weaker  than 
the  other  veins;  and  there  is  considerable  variation  in  the 
point  of  origin  of  this  vein. 

In  the  typical  Noctuids,  the  body  is  large  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  wings ;  the  front  wings  are  strong,  some- 
what narrow,  and  elongated,  the  outer  margin  being  shorter 
than  the  inner  margin  ;  and  when  at  rest,  the  wings  are 
folded  upon  the  abdomen,  giving  the  insect  a  triangular  out- 
line. The  antennae  are  thread-like,  fringed  with  hairs,  or 
brush-like,  rarely  pectinate  in  the  males.  Two  ocelli  are  al- 
most always  present.  The  labial  palpi  are  well  developed, 
and  in  some  species  quite  prominent.  The  maxillae  are 
quite  long  and  stout  in  most  species.  The  thorax  is  heavy 
and  stout.  In  some  species  the  scales  on  the  dorsal  surface 
of  the  thorax  are  turned  up  more  or  less,  forming  tufts. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  295 

The  abdomen  is  conical  and  extends  beyond  the  inner  angle 
of  the  hind  wings,  when  these  are  spread. 

The  majority  of  the  larvae  are  naked,  of  dull  colors,  and 
provided  with  five  pairs  of  prolegs.  As  a  rule  they  feed 
on  the  leaves  of  plants,  but  some  are  borers  and  some  gnaw 
into  fruits.  Among  them  are  some  of  the  most  important 
insects  injurious  to  agriculture. 

Although  the  Noctuidae  is  a  very  large  family,  the  efforts 
that  have  been  made  to  divide  it  into  subfamilies  have  not 
given  satisfactory  results.  Many  subfamilies  have  been  in- 
dicated ;  but  in  most  cases  these  proposed  subfamilies  appear 
to  be  merely  groups  of  allied  genera  which  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished by  any  common  character  from  the  other  similar 
groups.  In  the  following  pages  we  have  given  illustrations 
of  a  large  proportion  of  these  groups,  in  order  to  show,-  as 
well  as  we  can  in  a  limited  space,  the  variations  in  form  in- 
cluded in  this  family.  The  sequence  of  groups  adopted  is 
that  given  in  the  latest  catalogue  of  the  family,  that  by  Pro- 
fessor J.  B.  Smith ;  in  some  respects  we  doubt  its  being 
natural. 

There  is  a  group  of  moths,  the  Deltoids,  which  are  placed 
at  the  foot  of  this  family  on  account  of  their  apparent  re- 
lationship to  the  Geometrids  and  to  the  Pyralids.  These 
moths  are  usually  of  dull  colors  and  of  medium  size.  The 
name  Deltoids  was  suggested  by  the  triangular  outline  of  the 
wings  when  at  rest,  which  is  well  represented  by  the  Greek 
letter  delta.  When  in  this  position  the  wings  slope  much 
less  than  with  other  Noctuids,  the  attitude  being  more  like 
that  assumed  by  the  Geometrids ;  but  the  hind  wings  are 
more  nearly  covered  than  with  the  Geometrids.  Many  of 
the  Deltoids  have  very  long  palpi,  resembling  in  their  size 
those  of  the  Pyralids. 

The  Clover  Hypena,  Hypena  scabra  (Hy-pe'nasca'bra),  is 
a  common  Deltoid.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  clover, 
and  is  a  slender  green  worm.  It  measures  when  full  grown 
two-thirds  inch  in  length  and  only  about  one-tenth  inch  in 


296  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

width  in  its  widest  part ;  it  has  a  narrow  subdorsal  whitish 
line  and  a  lateral  one  of  the  same  color.  When  ready  to 
transform  it  webs  together  several  leaves  and  passes  the  pupa 
state  in  the  nest  thus  made.  The  adult  (Fig.  35 1)  is  a  blackish, 
brown  moth,  with  an  irregular  grayish 
shade  on  the  outer  half  of  the  fore 
wings,  and  with  very  broad  hind  wings. 
The  palpi,  which  are  not  well  shown  in 
FIG.  ^.-Hypena  scab™,  the  figure,  are  long,  wide,  and  flat- 
tened ;  they  project  horizontally  like  a  snout. 

The  Hop-vine  Hypena,  Hypena  humuli  (H.  hu'-mu-li), 
is  closely  allied  to  the  preceding  and  has  often  been  con- 
founded with  it.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  hop,  and 
is  sometimes  a  serious  pest. 

One  of  the  most  abundant  of  our  Deltoids  is  Pseu- 
daglossa  lubricalis  (Pseu-da-glos'sa  lu- 
bri-ca'lis.)  In  this  species  (Fig.  352) 
the  fore  wings  are  chocolate-brown, 
crossed  with  yellowish  lines;  the  hind 
wings  are  much  lighter.  The  palpi 

are  long;  but  they  are  curved  overFlGt  &-p^f?/°*sa  luM- 
the  head,  so  that  they  appear  short  when  seen  from  above, 
as  represented  in  the  figure.  The  larva  feeds  on  grass. 

Next  to  the  Deltoids  there  is  placed  a  group  of  moths 
which  may  be  called  the  Similar-winged  Owlets,  from  the 
fact  that  both  pairs  of  wings  are  similarly  marked  by  trans- 
verse lines.  The  group  includes  the  largest  of  our  Noctuids. 
^^^^  \  i  ^dflft  Tlie  two  f°U°wmg  species 

H^^^L— ^l^tf|      I  wiU  serve  to  illustrate  this 
'VN         ^fe^k^l  |y    group. 

^^'  The     Lunate    Similar- 

<£;;  ^^          wing,     Homoptera     lunata 

*^s^    ^^   '^  (Ho-mop'-te-ra    lu-na'ta.) — 

This   is   a  brownish  moth 

FlG-  353-— Homoptera  lunata.  with       marbled      wittgS.         It 

varies  greatly  in   its   markings.     Figure   353    represents   a 


LEPIDOPTEKA.  297 

variety  which  has  been  named  cdusa,  and  which  does  not 
show  well  the  lunate  mark  on  the  hind  wings  that  probably 
suggested  the  name  of  the  species.  The  larva  feeds  on  the 
leaves  of  rose,  willow,  maple,  plum,  and  other  plants. 

The  Black  Witch,  Erebus  odor  a  (Er'e-bus  o-do'ra).— The 
most  magnificent  in  size  of  our  Noctuids  is  this  species  (Fig. 
354).  There  is  much  variation  in  the  depth  of  coloring. 
The  specimen  figured  is  a  female ;  in  the  male  the  fore 
wings  are  more  pointed  at  the  apex  and  the  median  band  is 


FIG.  354. — Erebus  odor  a. 

indistinct.  It  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  and  is  not 
known  to  breed  in  the  United  States.  But  specimens  are 
found  as  far  north  as  Canada  and  west  to  Colorado,  and 
even  in  California.  It  is  believed  that  these  specimens  have 
flown  north  from  Cuba  or  from  Mexico.  Recently  some 
observations  have  been  made  which  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  moth  does  breed  within  our  territory ;  but  the  question 
is  not  yet  settled.  Only  isolated  specimens  are  found  in 
the  North,  and  these  in  late  summer  or  autumn. 


298 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Closely  allied  to  the  moths  just  described  is  another  group 

^^^  ,   ^^^  of  species  with   broad  wings,  of 

jffife^Xn/^^i^HB  1  which  the   Two-lined    Parallelia, 

pp^Jgi^^       «r  Parallelia  bistriaris  (Par-al-lel'i-a 

bi-stri'a-ris)  is  a  good    example. 

^Sr        This  moth  (Fig.  355)  is  brown- 

^^Br    JB   ^Iss^          jgh  jn    Color,   and    has    the    fore 

FIG.  3K.-paraiMia  butriaris.      wmgs    crOssed    by    two   parallel 

lines.     The  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  maple. 

The  most  striking  in  appearance  of  the  Noctuids,  if  we 
except  the  Black  Witch  and  one  or  two  allied  species,  are 
the  moths  belonging  to  the  genus  Catocala  (Ca-toc'a-la). 
These  moths  are  of  large  size,  often  expanding  three  inches 
or  more.  The  fore  wings  are  usually  brown  or  gray,  marked 
with  wavy  or  zigzag  lines.  The  ground-color  of  the  hind 
wings  is  black;  but  in  many  species  these  wings  are  con- 
spicuously banded  with  red,  yellow,  or  white.  This  pecu- 
liarity has  suggested  the  name  Underwings  by  which  these 


insects  are  commonly  known  in  England.  The  genus  is  a 
very  large  one ;  about  eighty  species  are  now  known  from 
this  country;  and  many  of  these  are  extremely  variable, 
so  that  about  twice  that  number  of  named  forms  are  now 
recognized.  The  Ilia  Underwing,  Catocala  ilia  (C.  il'i-a), 
will  serve  as  an  example  (Fig.  356).  The  larvse  of  the 


LEPWOPTERA.  2<ft 

Underwings  feed  on  the  leaves  of  various  forest-trees. 
Many  species  infest  oak  and  hickory.  By  careful  search 
both  the  adults  and  larvae  can  be  found  resting  on  the 
trunks  of  these  trees ;  but  it  needs  sharp  eyes  to  do  it,  as  the 
colors  of  these  insects  are  usually  protective. 

Among  the  more  common  Noctuids  that  occur  in  our 
meadows  and  pastures,  and  that  fly  up  before  us  as  we  walk 
through  them,  are  two  species  belonging  to  the  genus  Dras- 
teria  (Dras-te'ri-a).  These  may  be  called  the  Clover  Looping- 
owlets ;  for  the  larvae  feed  on  the  leaves  of  clover,  and,  as 
they  have  only  three  pairs  of  prolegs,  they  walk  in  a  loop- 
ing manner  like  the  Geometrids. 
One  of  these  species  is  Drasteria 
erechtea  (D.  e-rech'te-a).  This 
moth  (Fig.  357)  has  dark  or  light 
drab-gray  fore  wings,  which  are 
marked  by  two  large  dark  bands, 
as  shown  in  tfre  figure.  These 
bands  are  always  separate,  dis-  FlG-  357.-^**™ 
tinct,  and  well  defined  towards  the  inner  margin  in  the 
male ;  in  the  female  the  markings  are  much  less  dis- 
tinct. 

The  other  common  species  of  this  genus  is  Drasteria  eras- 
siuscula  (D.  cras-si-us'cu-la).  In  this  species  the  fore  wings 
have  either  a  distinct  violaceous  brown  or  a  red  shade,  with 
the  two  large  dark  bands  very  variable,  often  shading 
into  the  ground-color  on  the  outer  edge  or  coalescing  near 
the  inner  margin  ;  all  the  markings  are  equally  distinct  in 
both  sexes. 

There  is  a  group  of  Noctuids  containing  about  a  score 
of  genera  in  which  the  species  differ  markedly  in  appearance 
from  the  majority  of  the  members  of  the  family.  In  this 
group  the  moths  are  of  small  or  moderate  size  ;  and  some 
of  them  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  Tortricids.  Many  of 
the  species  are  marked  with  bright  colors,  and  especially 
with  white.  The  two  following  species  will  serve  to  illus- 


300  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

trate  this  group.  CJiamyris  cerintha  (Cham'y-ris  ce-rin'tha) 
(Fig.  358)  is  white,  with  the  fore  wings 
marked  with  shades  of  olive,  brown,  and 
blue.  The  hind  wings  have  a  narrow 
border  of  dark  scales,  within  which 
there  may  be  a  cloudy  shade  as  shown 
in  the  figure,  or  this  shade  may  be  want- 
ing. The  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves  of 


FIG. 


this 


group   is 


apple.     The  second  of   our   illustrations   of 

Acontia  candefacta  (A-con'ti-a  can-de-fac'ta) 

(Fig.  359).   This  species  is  also  largely  white, 

with  the  fore  wings  marked  with  shades  of 

olive,  brown,  and  yellow.     The  amount  of 

yellow  varies  greatly  in  different  specimens. 

The  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  Ambrosia  art  emisia folia. 

The  Boll-worm,  HeliotJiis  armigera  (He-li-o'this  ar-mig'e- 
ra). — This  widely  distributed'  pest  is  best  known  in  its  larval 
state  ;  but  the  larva  varies  so  greatly  in  color  and  markings 
that  it  is  difficult  to  prepare  a  description  by  which  it  can 
be  recognized.  The  senior  author  has  published  colored 
figures  of  this  insect,  including  five  varieties  of  the  larva,  in 
his  Report  on  Cotton-insects  and  also  in  the  Report  of  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1879,  Plate  VIII.  The 
larva  when  full  grown  measures  about  one  and  one  half 
inches  in  length.  It  is  often  found  feeding  on  the  tips  of 
ears  of  growing  corn.  It  also  frequently  infests  tomatoes,  eat- 
ing both  the  ripe  and  the  green  fruit.  Occasionally  it  is  found 
within  the  pods  of  peas  and  of  beans  eating  the  immature 
seeds.  But  the  most  serious  of  its  injuries  is  to  cotton. 
The  larva  bores  into  the  pods  or  bolls  of  the  cotton,  destroy- 
ing them.  The  injury  thus  done  to  the  cotton  crop  is 
second  in  importance  only  to  that  done  by  the  Cotton-worm, 
which  destroys  the  foliage  of  the  plant  Much  can  be  done 
to  check  the  injury  of  the  Boll-worm  to  cotton  by  planting 
rows  of  corn  in  the  cotton-field,  and  collecting  the  larvae  of 
the  early  broods  from  the  ears  of  corn,  thus  reducing  the 


LEPIDOP  TERA .  30 1 

number  of  individuals  in  the  later  broods  which  infest  the 
cotton. 

The  genus  Plusia  (Plu'si-a)  includes  a  large  number  of 
species  in  which  the  fore  wings  are 
marked  with  metallic-colored  scales. 
The  most  common  form  of  this 
marking  is  a  silvery  spot  shaped 
something  like  a  comma  near  the 
centre  of  the  wing.  Phisia  simplex 

/•»->.  £.    \     •  Hi  MI  FIG.  360. — Plusia  simplex. 

(rig.  360)  is  a  well-known  illustra- 
tion of  this  genus.  About  sixty  species  of  this  genus  have 
been  described  from  North  America.  In  some  of  the 
species  the  metallic  markings  cover  a  large  proportion  of 
the  fore  wings,  and  in  others  they  are  wanting.  The  larva 
of  Plusia  brassicce  (P.  bras'si-cae)  feeds  on  cabbage  and  other 
Cruciferce. 

In  the  cotton-growing  States  the  most  important  insect 

pest  is  the  Cotton-worm,  Aletia  argillacea  (A-le'ti-a  ar-gil-la'- 

ce-a).      The  adult  of  this  insect  (Fig.   361)  is  a  brownish 

\  /  moth  with    its  fore  wings    crossed 

fcj^^-^iix^l^JBJp    with  wavy  lines  of  darker  color  and 

^ffS^SjfljSf    marked  with  a   bluish   discal   spot 

|^f       and  two  white  dots  as  shown  in  the 

figure.     This  moth  is  found  in  the 

Northern      States     and     even     in 

FIG.  36i.-AMfa  argiiiacea.      ^^fa  jn   the  latter  part  of    the 

summer  and  in  the  autumn.  But  this  occurrence  in  the 
North  is  due  to  migrations  from  the  South,  as  the  insect  can- 
not survive  the  winter  north  of  the  Gulf  States.  The  larva 
feeds  on  the  foliage  of  cotton  ;  and  as  there  are  five  or  six 
generations  in  a  year,  the  multiplication  of  individuals  is 
very  rapid,  and  the  injury  to  the  cotton  great.  Detailed 
descriptions  and  colored  figures  of  this  insect  in  its  different 
stages  are  given  in  the  works  cited  above  in  the  description 
of  the  Boll-worm.  The  best  known  way  of  combating  this 
pest  is  by  the  use  of  Paris  green. 


3O2  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The   Hooded   Owlets,   Cucullia   (Cu-cuTli-a). — We  have 

several  common  grayish  moths,  in  which  the  fore  wings  are 

marked  with  numerous  irregular  dashes  of  dark  color,  and 

-v  _—-^^^    *n  which  the  thorax  is  furnished 

^SSto^m&^^&^f    with  3-  prominent  tuft  of  scales. 

These  moths  belong  to  the  genus 

Cucullia.    Figure  362  represents 

Cucullia    speyeri   (C.    spey'er-i). 

P  These    insects    evidently    have 

FIG.  362 .-Cucuina  speyeri.          the  power  of  moving  this  tuft 

of  scales  ;  for  sometimes  it  projects  forward  over  the  head  as 

shown  in  the  figure,  while  in  other  specimens  of  the  same 

species  it  will  be  directed  backward  ;  in  this  case  it  is  much 

less  conspicuous.     The  larvae  of  the  Hooded  Owlets  feed 

upon  the  leaves  of  goldenrod  and  other  Compositae. 

The  Scalloped  Owlet,  Scoleopteryx  libatrix  (Scol-e-op'ter- 
yx  li-ba'trix). — This  moth  is  easily  recognized  by  the  shape 
of  the  wings,  the  outer  margins  of  which  are  deeply  cut  and 
scalloped  (Fig.  363).  The 
color  of  the  fore  wings  is  soft 
brownish  gray,  slightly  pow- 
dered with  rust  -  red,  and 
frosted  with  white  along  the 

costa.  There  is  an  irregular  FIG.  363.— Scot^piiryx 
patch  of  rust-red  reaching  from  the  base  to  the  middle  of 
the  wing,  a  single,  white,  transverse  line  before  the  middle, 
and  a  double  one  beyond  the  middle.  The  larva  feeds  on 
willow.  This  species  is  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  United  States 
and  in  Europe. 

The  American  Copper  Hind- 
wing,  Ainphipyra  pyramidoides 
(Am-phip'y-ra  pyr-a-mi-doi'des). 
FIG.  Tfx.-Amphipyra  Pyramidoides.   —The  fore  wings  of  this  moth 
(Fig.  364)  are  dark  brown,  shaded  with  paler  brown,  and 
with  dots  and  wavy  lines  of  a  glasey  gray  or  dull  whitish 


LEPIDOP  TERA .  303 

hue.  The  hind  wings,  except  the  costal  third,  are  reddish, 
with  more  or  less  of  a  coppery  lustre.  This  suggests  the 
popular  name.  A  closely-allied  species  found  in  Europe  is 
known  as  the  Copper  Underwing  ;  but  we  prefer  to  reserve 
the  name  Underwing  for  the  species  of  Catocala.  The  larva 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  grape  and  Virginia-creeper. 
The  Many-dotted  Apple-worm,  Balsa  malana 
(Bal'sa  ma-la'na). — In  June,  and  again  in  August 
or  September,  there  is  some- 
times found  on  apple-leaves,  in 
considerable  numbers,  a  rather 
thick,  cylindrical,  light-green 
worm,  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  FIG.  365  - 

, .        ,  Balsa  malana. 

with  fine,  white,  longitudinal 
lines  and  numerous  whitish  dots.  These  are  the 
larvae  of  the  little  moth  represented  by  Figure  365. 
The  fore  wings  of  this  moth  are  ash-gray,  marked 
by  irregular,  blackish  lines.  The  larvae  feed  on 
the  leaves  of  many  other  trees  besides  apple. 
The  moth  has  been  found  throughout  the  eastern 
half  of-our  country. 

The  Army-worm,  Leucania  unipuncta  (Leu-ca'- 
ni-a  u-ni-punc'ta). — The  Army-worm  is  so  called 
because  it  frequently  appears  in  great  numbers, 
and,  after  destroying  the  vegetation  in  the  field 
where  the  eggs  were  laid,  marches  like  an  army  to 
other  fields.  This  insect  occurs  throughout  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
is  present  every  year;  but  it  attracts  attention 
only  when  it  appears  in  great  numbers.  The  larva 
(Fig.  366)  is  one  and  one-half  inches  long  when 
VLeucan~a  fulf  grown,  and  is  striped  with  black,  yellow,  and 
w"iarMi'"'  green.  The  adult  is  of  a  dull  brown  color,  marked 
in  the  center  of  each  fore  wing  with  a  distinct  white  spot 
(Fig.  367).  In  seasons  of  serious  outbreak  of  this  pes 
usually  appears  first  in  limited  areas,  in  meadows  or  pastures. 


304  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

If  it  is  discovered  before  it  has  spread  from  these  places  it  can 
be  confined  by  surrounding  the  field  with  a  ditch,  or  it  may  be 

destroyed  by  spraying  the 
grass  with  Paris-green  water. 
Ordinarily,  however,  the 
worms  are  not  observed  until 
after  they  have  begun  to 
march  and  are  wide-spread. 
In  such  cases  it  is  customary 
'VN^  N&\  to  protect  fields  of  grain  in 

their  path  by  surrounding 
them  with  ditches  with  ver- 
tical sides;  it  is  well  to  dig 

ViG.&.-Leucaniaunifuncta.  holes    like    pOSt-holeS    at     in- 

tervals  of  a  few  rods  in  the  bottom  of  such  ditches.  The 
worms  falling  into  the  ditch  are  unable  to  get  out,  and  crawl 
along  at  the  bottom  and  fall  into  these  deeper  holes.  We 
have  seen  these  insects  collected  by  the  bushel  in  this  way. 

The  Diver,  Bellura  gortynides  (Bel-lu'ra  gor-tyn'i-des). — 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  exceptions  to  what  are  usually 
the  habits  of  members  of  this  order  is  presented  by  the 
larva  of  this  species.  This  larva  is  able  to  descend  into 
water  and  remain  there  for  a  long  time.  It  lives  in  the  leaf- 
stalks of  the  pond-lily.  It  bores  a  hole  from  the  upper  side 
of  the  leaf  into  the  petiole,  which 
it  tunnels  in  some  instances  to  the 
depth  of  two  feet  or  more  below 
the  surface  of  the  water.  This 
necessitates  its  remaining  below 
the  surface  of  the  water  while 
feeding.  The  writer  has  seen  one 
of  these  larvae  remain  under  water  FlG-  &--Beiiura 
voluntarily  for  the  space  of  a  half-hour.  The  tracheae  of  these 
larvae  are  unusually  large,  and  we  believe  that  they  serve  as 
reservoirs  of  air  for  the  use  of  the  insect  while  under  water. 
The  form  of  the  hind  end  of  the  larva  has  also  been  modi- 


LEPIDOPTERA.  305 

fied,  so  as  to  fit  it  for  the  peculiar  life  of  the  insect.  The 
last  segment  appears  as  if  the  dorsal  half  had  been  cut 
away;  and  in  the  dorsal  part  of  the  hind  end  of  the  next 
to  the  last  segment,  which,  on  account  of  the  peculiar  shape 
of  the  last  segment,  is  free,  there  open  a  pair  of  spiracles 
much  larger  than  those  on  the  other  segments.  When  not 
feeding  the  larva  rests  at  the  upper  end  of  its  burrow,  with 
the  segment  bearing  these  large  spiracles  projecting  from 
the  water.  The  adult  insect  is  a  brownish  moth  which 
varies  greatly  in  size  and  markings.  Figure  368  represents 
what  seems  to  be  the  more  common  form. 

The  Zebra.  Caterpillar,  Mamestra  picta  (Ma-mes'tra 
pic'ta). — Cabbage  and  other  garden  vegetables  are  often 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  a  naked  caterpillar,  which  is  of  a 
light  yellow  color,  with  three  broad,  longitudinal,  black 


FIG.  369.— Mamestra  picta,  larva.  FIG.  370.—  Mamettra  picta, 

stripes,  one  on  each  side  and  the  third  on  the  top  of  the 
back.  The  stripes  on  the  sides  are  broken  by  numerous 
pure  white  lines  (Fig.  369).  It  passes  the  winter  in  the 
pupa  state.  The  adult  (Fig.  370)  has  dark  chestnut-brown 
fore  wings  and  pale  yellowish  hind  wings. 

Cut-worms. — Few  pests  are  more  annoying  than  the  ras- 
cally little  harvesters  that  nightly,  in  the  spring,  cut  off  our 
corn  and  other  plants  before  they  are  fairly  started.  There 
are  many  species  of  these  cut-worms,  but  they  are  all  the 
larvae  of  Owlet-moths.  In  general  their  habits  are  as 
follows:  The  moths  lay  their  eggs  during  midsummer.  The 
larvae  soon  hatch,  and  feed  upon  the  roots  and  tender  shoots 
of  herbaceous  plants.  At  this  time,  as  the  larvae  are  small 
and  their  food  is  abundant,  they  are  rarely  observed.  On  the 


306  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

approach  of  cold  weather  they  bury  themselves  in  the 
ground  and  here  pass  the  winter.  In  the  spring  they  renew 
their  attacks  on  vegetation  ;  but  now,  as  they  are  larger  and 
in  cultivated  fields  the  plants  are  smaller,  their  ravages 
quickly  attract  attention.  It  would  not  be  so  bad  if  they 
merely  destroyed  what  they  eat ;  but  they  have  the  unfortu- 
nate habit  of  cutting  off  the  young  plants  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  and  thus  destroy  much  more  than  they  consume. 
They  do  their  work  at  night,  remaining  concealed  in  the 
ground  during  the  daytime.  When  full  grown  they  form 
oval  chambers  in  the  ground  in  which  they  pass  the  pupa 
state.  The  moths  appear  during  the  months  of  June,  July, 
and  August. 

There  are  some  exceptions  to  these  generalizations :  some 
species  of  cut-worms  ascend  trees  during  the  night  and  destroy 
the  young  buds ;  some  pass  through  two  generations  in  the 
course  of  a  year  ;  and  a  few  pass  the  winter  in  the  pupa  state. 
Cut-worms  can  be  destroyed  by  poisoned  baits  of  fresh 
clover  or  9ther  green  vegetation,  or  with  poisoned  dough 
made  of  bran.     Much  can  be  done  by  making  holes  in  the 
ground  with  a   sharpened  stick, 
as  a  broom-handle.      The   holes 
should  be  vertical,  a  foot  deep, 
and  with  smooth  sides.     On  the 
approach  of  day  the  cut-worms 
will    crawl    into   such    holes    to 

FIG.  yi\.—Noctua  c-nigru»t. 

hide,  and  will  be  unable  to  crawl 

out  again.  Climbing  cut-worms  can  be  jarred  from  the 
trees  during  the  night,  and  caught  upon  sheets,  and  then 
destroyed. 

One  of  our  cut-worms,  which  is  known  as  the  Spotted 
Cut-worm,  is  the  larva  of  the  Black-c  Owlet,  Noctua 
c-mgrum  (Noc'tu-a  c-ni'grum).  This  moth  (Fig.  371)  is  one 
of  the  most  common  species  attracted  to  lights.  It  occurs 
throughout  our  country  and  in  Europe. 

At  the  end  of  the  Noctuid  series  there  is  placed  a  group 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


307 


of  genera,  which  contain  species  that  differ  in  appearance 
from  other  Noctuids,  the  larvae  of  many  being  hairy  like 
those  of  Arctiids.  The  fore  wings  of  the  moths  are  gener- 
ally light  gray  with  dark  spots,  and  in  many  species  have  a 
dagger-like  mark  near  the  anal  angle.  On  this  account  these 
moths  have  received  the  name  Daggers. 

The  Ochre  Dagger,  Acronycta  morula  (Ac-ro-nyc'ta  mor'u- 
la). — This  moth  (Fig.  372)  is  pale  gray  with  a  yellowish 
tinge.  Besides  the  black  line 
forming  part  of  the  dagger 
near  the  anal  angle  of  the 
fore  wing,  there  is  a  similar 
black  line  near  the  base  of 
the  wing,  and  a  third  near 
the  outer  margin  between 

_  _  ITT  TM         i  FlG.  372. — Acronycta  morufa. 

veins  V,  and  Va.     The  larva 

feeds  on  elm  and  bassvvood.    When  full  grown  it  is  mottled 

brown  and  greenish  like  the  bark,  it  is  clothed  with  but  few 

scattered  hairs,  and  has  a 
hump  on  the  first,  fourth,  and 
eighth  abdominal  segments. 

The  American  Dagger,  Ac- 
ronycta ainericana  (Ac-ro-nyc'- 
ta a-mer-i-ca'na). — This  is  a 
gray  moth  resembling  in  its 
general  appearance  the  pre- 
ceding, but  with  the  black 
lines  on  the  fore  wings  much 
less  distinct.  Its  larva,  how- 
ever,  is  very  different  (Fig. 
373).  This  larva  looks  like  an 
Arctiid,  being  densely  clothed 
with  yellow  hairs.  But  these 
hairs  are  scattered  over  the 
surface  of  the  body  instead  of 

growing  from  tubercles,  as  with  the  larvae  of  Arctiids.    Along 


308  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

the  sides  of  the  body  and  at  each  end  are  a  few  scattered 
hairs  that  are  longer  than  the  general  clothing,  and  there 
are  two  pairs  of  long  black  pencils  borne  by  the  first  and 
third  abdominal  segments,  and  a  single  pencil  on  the  eighth 
abdominal  segment.  When  at  rest  the  larva  remains  curled 
sidewise  on  a  leaf,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  It  feeds  on 
maple,  elm,  and  other  forest  trees. 

The  Witch-hazel   Dagger,  Acronycta  Jiamamelis  (Ac-ro- 

^^^^^^^  nyc'ta   ham-a-me'lis). — In    the    latter 

^^^^      part  of  summer   and  in   autumn  the 

*•<**:  BJ^    larva  of  this  species  is  common  on  the 

Cy>*ji  ^w  leaves  of  witch-hazel,  oak,  and  other 

HHBp        forest  trees.     It  differs  greatly  in  ap- 

^1  pearance  from  the  preceding  species, 

being  nearly  naked  (Fig.  374).    When 

at  rest  it  usually  lies  curled  as  shown 

TSHBT  in  the  figure.     It  varies  in  color  from 

light   yellow  to    reddish    brown.     Its 

most  characteristic  feature  is  a  double 

™m*nZ\2£  ha'"a~  row   of    milk-white   spots    along    the 

middle  of  the  back. 

Family  LYMANTRIID^;  (Lym-an-tri'i-dae). 
The  Tussock-mot/is. 

The  larvae  of  these  moths  are  among  the  most  beautiful 
of  our  caterpillars,  being  clothed  with  brightly-colored  tufts 
of  hairs  ;  and  it  is  to  this  characteristic  clothing  of  the  larvae 
that  the  popular  name  Tussock-moths  refers. 

The  adult  moths  are  much  plainer  in  appearance  than 
the  larvae  :  and  in  the  genus  Notolophus,  to  which  our  most 
common  species  belong,  the  females  are  practically  wingless, 
the  wings  being  at  most  short  pads,  of  no  use  as  organs 
of  flight. 

The  Tussock-moths  are  of  medium  size,  with  the  antennae 
of  both  sexes  when  winged  pectinated,  those  of  the  males 


LEPIDOPTEKA. 


309 


m,  in, 


very  broadly  so ;  the  wingless  females  have  serrate  or  nar- 
rowly pectinate  antennae.  The  ocelli  are  wanting.  The 
legs  are  clothed  with 
woolly  hairs;  when 
the  insect  is  at  rest 
the  fore  legs  are  usu- 
ally stretched  for- 
ward, and  are  very 
conspicuous  on  ac- 
count of  these  long 
hairs.  The  venation 
of  the  wings  is  rep- 
resented by  Figure 
375  ;  in  this  respect 
these  moths  are  very 
similar  to  the  Noc- 
tuids ;  in  fact  we 
have  been  unable  to 
find  as  yet  any  con- 
stant feature  in  the 

structureof  the  wings  FlG-  375-— wings  of  Notohpkus 
of  either  family  that  will  serve  to  separate  the  two.  But  in 
the  Lymantriidae  the  antennae  are  pectinate  and  the  ocelli  are 
absent  ;  while  in  the  Noctuidae  the  antennae  are  usually  sim- 
ple and  the  ocelli  are  usually  present;  and  when  the  antennas 
are  pectinate  the  ocelli,  in  all  cases  known  to  us,  are  pres- 
ent :  in  this  way  a  distinction  is  preserved  between  the  two 
families.  Although  it  is  hard  to  find  a  distinction  betw.een 
the  two  that  can  be  put  into  words,  the  general  appearance 
of  the  Tussoxrk-moths  is  very  different  from  that  of  the 
Noctuids,  and  entomologists  have  no  difficulty  in  deciding  to 
which  family  any  species  belongs.  The  Tussock-moths  are 
chiefly  nocturnal ;  but  the  males  of  Notolophus  fly  in  the 
daytime. 

The  larvae  of  our  native  species  are  very  characteristic  in 
appearance.     The   body  is   hairy;   there   are   several   con- 


3IO  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

spicuous  tufts  of  hairs  on  the  dorsal  aspect  of  the  abdomen, 
and  at  each  end  of  the  body  there  are  long  pencils  of  hairs  ; 
on  the  sixth  and  seventh  abdominal  segments  there  is  on 
the  middle  of  the  back  of  each  an  eversible  gland  supposed 
to  be  a  scent-organ  similar  to  the  osmateria  in  the  larvae  of 
Papilio,  and  it  is  stated  that  a  fine  spray  of  liquid  is  some- 
times thrown  from  them. 

Excepting  a  few  rare  forms,  our  native  species  fall  into 
two  genera  —  Notolophus  and  Parorgyia.  In  Notolophus  the 
males  have  short,  broad  wings  ;  the  females  are  nearly 
wingless.  In  Parorgyia  both  sexes  are  winged,  and  the 
wings  are  relatively  longer  than  in  Notolophus. 

Our  most  common  species  belong  to  Notoloplius.  Of  this 
genus  the  three  best-known  species  are  the  following  :  — 

The  White-marked  Tussock-moth,  Notolophus  leucostigma 
(No-tol'o-phus  leu-co-stig'ma).  —  This  is  our  most  common  rep- 
resentative  of  the  family.  It  frequently 
°ccurs  in  such  great  numbers  that  it 
seriously  injures  the  foliage  of  shade- 
trees  and  orchards.  The  male  (Fig. 


F,C.   3,  - 

stigma.  wings  are  crossed  by  undulated  bands 

of  darker  shade  and  bear  a  conspicuous  white  spot  near  the 
anal  angle.    The  female  is  white  and  resembles  a  hairy  grub 


FIG.  377.—  Notolophus  leucostigma,  larva. 

more  than  a  moth.     She  emerges    from    her   cocoon    and 
after  pairing  lays  her  eggs  upon   it,  covering  them  with  a 


LEPID  OP  TERA .  3  I  I 

frothy  mass.  The  larva  (Fig.  377)  is  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  our  caterpillars.  The  head  and  the  glands  on  the 
sixth  and  seventh  abdominal  segments  are  bright  vermilion- 
red.  There  is  a  velvety  black  dorsal  band,  bordered  with 
yellow  subdorsal  stripes ;  and  there  is  another  yellow  band 
on  each  side  just  below  the  spiracles.  The  prothorax  bears 
on  each  side  a  pencil  of  long  black  hairs  with  plume-like 
tips;  a  similar  brush  is  borne  on  the  back  of  the  eighth 
abdominal  segment,  and  the  first  four  abdominal  segments 
bear  dense  brush-like  tufts  of  cream-colored  or  white  hairs. 

When  this  insect  becomes  a  pest  the  larvae  can  be  de- 
stroyed by  spraying  the  infested  trees  with  Paris-green  water ; 
or  the  egg-bearing  cocoons  can  be  collected  during  the  win- 
ter and  destroyed.  These  cocoons  are  attached  to  the  trunks 
of  the  trees  and  to  neighboring  objects,  or  to  twigs.  In  the 
latter  case  they  are  usually  partially  enclosed  in  a  leaf.  Co- 
coons not  bearing  eggs  should  not  be  destroyed,  as  many  of 
them  contain  parasites.  Owing  to  the  wingless  condition  of 
the  female  this  pest  spreads  slowly. 

The  Well-marked  Tussock-moth,  Notolophus  definita  (N. 
def-i  ni'ta). — The  male,  like  that  of  the  preceding  species,  is 
of  an  ashy  gray  color ;  but  the  markings  of  the  fore  wings 
are  much  more  distinct.  The  female  is  light  brown.  She 
lays  her  eggs  in  a  mass  on  her  cocoon,  covering  them  with 
hair  from  her  body.  The  larva  closely  resembles  the  pre- 
ceding species  in  the  form  and  arrangement  of  its  tufts  of 
hair,  but  differs  markedly  in  color,  being  almost  entirely  light 
yellow.  There  is  a  dusky  dorsal  stripe  and  a  velvety  black 
spot  behind  each  of  the  tufts  of  the  first  four  abdominal  seg- 
ments. The  head  and  the  glands  on  the  sixth  and  seventh 
abdominal  segments  are,  like  the  body,  light  yellow. 

The  Old  Tussock-moth,  Notolophus  antiqua  (N.  an-ti'qua). 
—The  male  is  of  a  rust-brown  color  ;  the  fore  wings  are 
crossed  by  two  deeper  brown  bands  and  have  a  conspicuous 
white  spot  near  the  anal  angle.  The  body  of  the  grub-like 
female  is  black,  clothed  with  yellowish  white  hairs ;  she  lays 


312  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

her  eggs  on  her  cocoon,  but,  unlike  the  two  preceding  species, 
does  not  cover  them  with  anything.  The  larva  differs  from 
either  of  the  preceding  in  having  an  extra  pair  of  pencils 
of  plume-like  hairs  arising  from  the  sides  of  the  second 
abdominal  segment ;  the  head  is  jet-black ;  the  glands  on  the 
sixth  and  seventh  abdominal  segments  are  vermilion-red  or 
sometimes  bright  orange  ;  and  the  tubercles  on  the  sides  of 
the  back  of  the  second  and  third  thoracic  and  the  sixth 
and  seventh  abdominal  segments  are  orange-red  or  yellow 
margined  with  pale  yellow. 

The  Gipsy  M.o\h,Porthetria  ^y/dr(Por-the'tri-a  dis'par). — 
This  is  a  European  species  which  has  been  introduced  into 
Massachusetts.  It  has  become  such  a  serious  pest  that  the 
Legislature  of  that  State  has  appropriated  a  large  sum  of 
money  to  be  expended  in  efforts  to  eradicate  it ;  this  work  is 
now  going  on.  The  male  is  yellowish  brown ;  the  female, 

white  (Fig.  378).  In  each 
the  fore  wings  are  crossed 
by  many  dark  lines  and  bear 
a  black  lunule  on  the  discal 
vein.  The  specimen  figured 
is  unusually  small.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  a  mass  on  any 
convenient  object  and  are 
covered  with  hair  from  the  abdomen  of  the  female.  The 
larva  differs  greatly  in  appearance  from  that  of  the  preceding 
genus,  lacking  the  peculiar  pencils  and  tufts  of  hair  ;  but  the 
characteristic  glands  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  abdominal 
segments  are  present  and  are  red.  The  body  is  dark  brown 
or  black,  finely  reticulated  with  pale  yellow,  and  with  narrow 
yellow  dorsal  and  subdorsal  lines.  On  the  dorsal  aspect  of 
each  segment  there  is  a  pair  of  prominent,  rounded  tubercles 
bearing  spiny  black  hairs.  The  first  five  pairs  of  these 
tubercles  are  bluish,  the  others  dark  crimson-red.  There 
are  also  two  rows  of  tubercles  on  each  side  of  the  body 
which  bear  longer  hairs. 


LEP1DOPTERA. 


3'3 


Family  AGARISTID^:  (Ag-a-ris'ti-dae). 
The  Wood-nymph  Moths. 

These  gayly-dressed  moths  are  a  delight  to  the  collector. 
We  have  but  few  species  of  them  in  this  country,  and  an 
even  smaller  number  are  common.  These  moths  are  either 
black  with  large,  white  or  yellow,  rounded  patches  upon  the 
wings,  or  they  have  the  front  wings  white,  margined  with 
brown,  and  the  hind  wings  pale  yellow.  They  are  chiefly 
day-flying;  but  some  of  them  are  attracted  to  lights  at 
night. 

The  shape  of  the  antennae  varies  greatly  in  the  different 
genera.  In  Euthisanotia 
the  antennae  are  fili- 
form  ;  in  Alypia  slightly 
enlarged  near  the  tip  ; 
and  in  Psychomorpha 
they  are  filiform  in  the 
female  and  pectinated 
in  the  male.  The  max- 
illae are  moderately  well 
developed  and  spirally 
rolled.  The  venation 
of  the  wings  (Fig.  379) 
is  very  similar  to  that 
of  some  Noctuids ;  but 
there  is  no  difficulty  in 
separating  the  two  fam- 
ilies, the  Wood-nymph 
Moths  being  very  dif-  FIG.  379.- wings  of 

ferent  in  appearance  from  any  Noctuids. 

The  larvae  are  but  slightly  clothed,  and  live  exposed  on 
the    leaves    of    plants.     Our   more   common   species    feed 
chiefly  on    grape  and  Virginia-creeper,  which  they    some- 
times injure  to  a  serious  extent.     In  such  cases  they  can  b 
destroyed  by  the  use  of  Paris  green.     This  substance  can 


314  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

be  used  even  in  vineyards  in  the  East,  as  the  application 
would  have  to  be  made  early  in  the  season,  and  the  sum- 
mer rains  would  wash  the  poison  from  the  vines.  The 
pupa  state  is  passed  either  in  an  earthen  cell  or  in  a  very 
slight  cocoon. 

The  family  is  one  of  limited  extent ;  less  than  thirty 
North  American  species  are  known.  The  larger  number  of 
these  occur  in  the  far  West  or  in  the  Gulf  States.  The 
following  are  the  most  common  species : — 

The  Eight-spotted  Forester,  Alypia  octomactilata  (A-lyp'- 
i-a  oc-to-mac-u-la'ta). — This  species  is  of  a  deep  velvety-black 
color.  The  front  wings  have  two  large 
sulphur-yellow  spots  ;  and  the  hind  wings, 
two  white  spots  (Fig.  380).  The  figure 
represents  a  male  ;  the  female  is  some- 
what  larSer'  The  Patagia  are  sulphur- 
yellow.  The  legs  are  black  with  orange- 
colored  scales  on  the  tibiae  of  the  first  and  second  pairs. 
The  larva  (Fig.  381)  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  grape  and  Vir- 
ginia-creeper, and  sometimes  occurs  in  such  large  numbers 
as  to  do  serious  injury.  The  ground-color  of  the  larva  is 
white,  with  eight  black  stripes  on  each  segment,  and  a 


FIG.  381.— Alypia  octomaculata,  larva. 

broader  orange  band,  bounded  by  the  two  middle  stripes  ; 
the  orange  bands  are  marked  by  black,  conical,  elevated 
spots.  There  are  usually  two  broods  each  year,  the  moths 
appearing  on  the  wing  in  May  and  August,  the  caterpillars 
in  June  and  July,  and  in  September.  The  pupa  state  is 
passed  in  an  earthen  cell  in  the  ground. 

Langton's    Forester,    Alypia   langtonii  (A.    lang-to'ni-i), 
resembles  the  preceding  species  in  general  appearance,  but 


LEP1DOP  TERA .  315 

can  be  readily  distinguished  by  the  hind  wings  bearing  only 
a  single  spot.  It  is  not  a  common  species,  and  its  early 
stages  have  not  yet  been  described. 

The  Grape-vine  Epimenis,  Psychomorpha  epimenis  (Psy- 
cho-mor'pha  ep-i-me'nis). — This  is  a  velvety-black  species 
with  a  large  white  patch  on  the  outer  third  of  the  front 
wings  and  a  brick-red  patch  on  the  hind 
wings  (Fig.  382).  The  larva  resembles 
somewhat  that  of  Alypia  figured  above; 
but  it  is  bluish  and  has  only  four  light 
and  four  dark  stripes  to  each  segment.  F:c 
It  feeds  upon  the  terminal  shoots  of 
grape  and  Virginia-creeper  in  spring,  drawing  the  leaves  to- 
gether by  a  weak  silken  thread  and  destroying  them.  When 
ready  to  transform,  which  is  usually  towards  the  end  of  May, 
it  either  enters  the  ground  or  bores  into  soft  wood  to  form  a 
cell.  Within  this  it  remains  until  the  following  spring. 

The  Beautiful  Wood-nymph,  Enthisanotia  grata  (Eu-this- 
a-no'ti-a  gra'ta). — This  moth  (Fig.  383)  well  deserves  the 
popular  name  that  has  been  applied  to  it.  Its  front  wings 
are  creamy  white,  with  a  glassy  surface ;  a  wide  brownish- 
purple  stripe  extends  along  the  costal  margin,  reaching 

from  the  base  to  a  little  beyond 
the  middle  of  the  wing,  and  on 
the  outer  margin  is  a  band  of 
the  same  hue,  which  has  a  wavy 
white  line  running  through  it, 
and  is  margined  internally  with 
a  narrow  olive-green  band. 

FIG.  ^.—Euthisanotia.  grata.  Qn    j.J.,e    jnner    margin    JS    B,    yel- 

lowish  olive-green  cloud.  The  hind  wings  are  clear  pale 
ochre-yellow,  with  a  brown  band  on  the  outer  margin.  The 
wing  expanse  is  about  one  and  three-fourths  inches.  The 
moth  appears  during  the  latter  part  of  June  or  early  in 
July.  The  larva  of  this  species  is  pale  bluish,  crossed  by 
bands  of  orange  and  many  fine  black  lines.  It  also  bears  a 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


resemblance  to  that  of  Alypia,  but  may  be  distinguished  by 
having  only  six  transverse  black  lines  on  each  segment.  It 
has  the  same  food-plants  as  the  species  described  above.  It 
transforms  in  a  cell  in  the  ground  or  in  soft  wood. 

The  Pearl  Wood-nymph,  Euthisanotia  unto  (E.  u'ni-o). — 
This  moth  closely  resembles  the  species  just  described,  but 
is  smaller,  expanding  a  little  less  than  one  and  one  half 
inches.  The  outer  border  of  the  front  wings  is  paler  and 
mottled  ;  and  the  band  on  the  hind  wings  extends  from  the 
inner  angle  to  the  apex.  The  larva  resembles  that  of  E. 
grata  ;  it  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  Euphorbia  coloratum,  and 
perhaps  on  grape  also. 

Family  PERICOPID^E  (Per-i-cop'i-dae). 

The  Pericopids  (Pe-ric' o-pids}. 

These  beautiful  insects  occur  within  the  limits  of  our 
country  only  in  the  far  West  and  in  the  Gulf  States.  They 

resemble    the 

™,J%^\L   Wood-«ymPh 

Moths  in  their 
strongly  contrast- 
ing colors;  but 
can  be  distin- 
guished from 
them  by  the  po- 
sition of  the  ori- 
gin of  vein  V,  of 
the  hind  wings, 
which  appears  to 
be  a  branch  of 
cubitus  (Fig.  384). 
Our  most  com- 
mon species  be- 
long to  the  genus 
Gnophala  (Gno- 

F,G.  384  -Wings  of  Gnophvla  hopfferi.  phse'la).  TllCSC 

black  with  conspicuous  yellow  spots.     G.  vermiculata 


are 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


317 


Colorado ;    it  is  represented 


FIG.  ^.— 


(G.  ver-mic-u-la'ta)  occurs 
by  Figure  385.  G.  hopf- 
feri  (G.  hopf'fe-ri)  is 
found  in  California,  in 
the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra 
Nevadas.  It  has  three 
yellow  spots  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fore  wing,  and 
a  transverse  row  of  from 
three  to  five  spots  near 
the  outer  margin  ;  on  the  hind  wings  there  are  two  spots  near 
the  base  and  another  pair  between  these  and  the  apex  of  the 
wing. 

Family  ARCTIID^:  (Arc-ti'i-dae). 
The  Tiger-moths,  or  Arctiids  (Arc' ti-ids). 

The  Arctiidae  includes  stout-bodied  moths,  with  moder- 
ately broad  wings,  which  in  the  majority  of  cases  are  con- 
spicuously striped  or  spotted,  suggesting  the  popular  name 
Tiger-moths ;  some  of  the  species,  however,  are  unspotted. 

A  large  proportion  of 
the  species  are  exceed- 
ingly beautiful  ;  this 
renders  the  family  a 
favorite  one  with  collec- 
tors. As  a  rule,  when 
at  rest,  the  wings  are 
folded  roof-like  upon 
the  body.  The  moths 
fly  at  night,  and  are  at- 
tracted to  lights. 

These    moths   differ 
from  the  following  fam- 

jn      haying     ocem. 

these  are  often  prominent,  at  other  times  they  are  difficult 
to  see  on  account  of  the  long  hairs  with  which  the  head  is 


THE  STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


clothed.  The  palpi  are  short,  usually  but  little  developed ; 
and  the  maxillae  are  present.  The  most  important  features  in 
the  venation  of  the  wings  (Figs.  386,  387)  is  the  union  of 
veins  Va  and  V,  of  the  fore  wings  with  cubitus,  making 
it  apparently  four-branched  ;  and  the  growing  together  of 
subcosta  and  radius  of  the  hind  wings  for  a  considerable 
distance.  The  extent  of  the  union  of  these  two  veins  varies 
greatly  in  the  different  genera;  but  so  far  as  we  have  ob- 
served it  is  always  less 
Trrj:r4  than  four  fifths  of  the 
length  of  the  discal 
cell.  This  character  is 
of  use  in  separating 
these  insects  from  the 
Zygaenidae  in  which 
the  union  of  these  two 
veins  is  carried  farther. 
The  larvae  of  the 
Tiger-moths  are  clothed 
with  dense  clusters  of 
hairs.  In  fact  a  large 
proportion  of  our  com- 
mon hairy  caterpillars 
are  members  of  this 


FIG.  387.— Wings  of  Pygoctenucha  funerea. 


family.  In  some  species,  certain  of  the  clusters  of  hairs 
are  much  larger  than  the  others,  resembling  in  this 
respect  the  clothing  of  the  Tussock-moths.  Most  larvae 
of  the  Arctiids  feed  upon  herbaceous  plants,  and  many 
species  seem  to  have  but  little  choice  of  food-plant  ; 
but  certain  common  species  feed  upon  leaves  of  forest- 
trees. 

About  one  hundred  and  fifty  North  American  species 
have  been  described.  The  following  are  some  of  the  more 
common  representatives. 

Among  the  more  beautiful  of  the  Tiger-moths  is  a  genus 
the  species  of  which  are  snow-white  or  light  yellow  with  the 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


3*9 


In   most  species  the 


fore  wings  banded  with  dark  brown. 

hind  wings  are  unspot- 

ted    and      are     snow- 

white,    but     in     some 

the     hind     wings     are 

yellow.     These    moths 

constitute    the     genus 

Haploa  (Hap'lo-a).      A 

species  common  in  the 

Atlantic  States  and  rep- 

resented by  Figure  388  is  Haploa  contigua  (H.  con-tig'u-a). 

The  insects  of  this  genus  vary  greatly  in  their  markings. 
The  Bella-moth,  Utetheisa  bella  (U-te-thei'sa  bel'la)  is  a 
whitish  moth  with  lemon-yellow 
or  orange-colored  fore  wings, 
crossed  by  six  transverse  white 
bands,  each  containing  a  series 
of  black  dots  (Fig.  389);  the 

FIG.  iSg.-  > 

black  outer  margin,  which  is  bordered  within  by  a  narrow  white 
line.     The  species  occurs  throughout  the  Atlantic  States. 

The  Harlequin 
Milkweed  Cater- 
pillar, Cycnia  egle 
(Cyc'ni-a  eg'le).  — 
This  larva  is  the 
most  common  cat- 
erpillar found  on 
milkweed.  It  is 
clothed  with  tufts 
of  orange,  black, 
and  white  ;  those 
at  each  end  of  the 
body  are  longer 
than  the  others,  F'r-  39«>.-c>c*/«i  «*.  'arva 

and  are  arranged  radiately  (Fig.   390).     When   full  grown 


320 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


the  larva  makes  a  felt-like  cocoon  composed  largely  of  its 
hairs.  The  adult  has  mouse-gray,  unspotted  wings ;  the 
abdomen  is  yellow,  with  a  row  of  black  spots  along  the 
middle  of  the  back. 

The  Hickory  Tiger-moth,  Halisidota  carya  (Ha-lis-i- 
do'ta  ca'ry-ae). — One  of  the  most  abundant  of  caterpillars 
in  the  Atlantic  States  and  westward  during  the  months  of 
August  and  September  is  one  clothed  with  dense  tufts  of 
finely  barbed  white  hairs  (Fig.  391)  ;  there  is  a  ridge  or  crest 


FIG.  391.— Halisidota  carya .  larva. 

of  black  hairs  on  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  abdominal 
segments,  a  few  long  white  hairs  projecting  over  the  head 
from  the  thorax,  and  others  projecting  back  from  the  last  seg- 
ment ;  there  are  also  two  pairs  of  pencils  of  black  hairs,  one 
on  the  first  and  one  on  the  seventh 
abdominal  segment,  and  a  similar 
pair  of  pencils  of  white  hairs  on 
the  eighth  abdominal  segment. 
This  larva  feeds  on  hickory, 

FIG.  w.-Haiisidcta  cary*          butternut,  and  other  forest-trees. 
Its   grayish    cocoons,    composed 

>st  entirely  of  the  hair  of  the  larva,  are  often  found  under 
stones,  fences,  and  other  similar  places.  The  fore  wings  of 
ie  adult  (Fig.  392)  are  dark  brown  spotted  with  white. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  321 

The  Salt-marsh  Caterpillar,  Estigmene  acrcea  (Es-tig-me'ne 
a-crae'a). — The  popular  name  of  this  insect  was  given  to  it 
by  Harris,  and  was  suggested  by  the  fact  that  the  salt- 
marsh  meadows  about  Boston  were  overrun  and  laid  waste 
in  his  time  by  swarms  of  the  larvae.  But  the  name  is  mis- 
leading, as  the  species  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
United  States.  The  moth 
(Fig.  393)  is  white,  marked 
with  yellow  and  black. 
There  are  many  black  dots 
on  the  wings,  a  row  of 
black  spots  on  the  back  of 
the  abdomen,  another  row 
on  the  venter,  and  two  rows  on  each  side.  The  sexes  differ 
greatly  in  the  ground-color  of  the  wings ;  in  the  female,  this 
is  white  throughout ;  in  the  male,  only  the  upper  surface  of 
the  fore  wings  is  white,  the  lower  surface  of  the  fore  wings 
and  the  hind  wings  above  and  below  being  yellow.  The  num- 
ber and  size  of  the  Black  spots  on  the  wings  vary  greatly. 
There  are  usually  more  submarginal  spots  on  the  hind 
wings  than  represented  in  our  figure. 

The  Fall  Web-\vorm,  Hyphantria  cunea  (Hy-phan'tri-a 
cu'ne-a). — A  very  common  sight  in  autumn  in  all  parts  of 
our  country  is  large  ugly  webs  enclosing  branches  of  fruit  or 
forest  trees.  These  webs  are  especially  common  on  apple 
and  on  ash.  Each  web  is  the  residence  of  a  colony  of 
larvae  which  have  hatched  from  a  cluster  of  eggs,  laid  on  a 
leaf  by  a  snow-white  moth.  There  is  a  variety  of  this 
moth  in  which  the  fore  wings  are  thickly  studded  with  dark 
brown  spots.  Every  gradation  exists  between  this  form 
and  those  that  are  spotless.  The  species  winters  in  the 
pupa  state,  and  the  moths  emerge  during  May  or  June. 
The  webs  made  by  this  insect  should  not  be  confounded 
with  those  made  by  the  Apple-tree  Tent-caterpillar.  The 
webs  of  the  Fall  Web-worm  are  made  in  the  autumn,  and 


322  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

are  much  lighter  in  texture,  being  extended  over  all  of  the 
leaves  fed  upon  by  the  colony. 

The  Isabella  Tiger-moth,  Pyrrharctia  Isabella  (Pyr-rharc'- 
ti-a  is-a-bel'la).— "  Hurrying  along  like  a  caterpillar  in  the 
fall"  is  a  common  saying  among  country  people  in  New 
England,  and  probably  had  its  origin  in  observations  made 
upon  the  larva  of  the  Isabella  Tiger-moth.  This  is  the 
evenly  clipped,  furry  caterpillar,  reddish  brown  in  the 
middle  and  black  at  either  end,  which  is  seen  so  commonly 
in  the  autumn  and  early  spring  (Fig.  394).  Its  evident  haste 

to  get  somewhere,  in  the 
autumn,  is  almost  painful  to 
witness.  A  nervous  anxiety 
is  apparent  in  every  undulat- 

^.  ^.-Pyrrharctia  nabella,  larva.  jng     movement    Qf    its     body  . 

and  frequently  its  shining  black  head  is  raised  high  in  the 
air,  and  moved  from  side  to  side,  while  it  gets  its  bearings. 
Occasionally  after  such  an  observation  it  evidently  finds  it 
is  mistaken,  and  turns  sharply  and  hastens  along  faster  than 
ever  in  another  direction.  So  far  as  we  can  judge,  its  ex- 
citement comes  from  a  sudden  fear  that  winter  will  over- 
take it  before  it  can  find  a  cosy,  protected  corner  in  which 
to  pass  its  winter  sleep.  In  the  spring  it  comes  forth  again, 
and  after  feeding  for  a  time  makes  a  blackish-brown  cocoon 
composed  largely  of  its  hair.  The  adult  is  of  a  dull  grayish 
tawny-yellow,  with  a  few  black  dots  on  the  wings,  and  fre- 
quently with  the  hinder  pair  tinged  with  orange-red.  On 
the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  abdomen  there  is  a  row  of 
about  six  black  dots,  and  on  each  side  of  the  body  a  similar 
row  of  dots. 

The  Yellow-bear,  Spilosoma  virginica  (Spil-o-so'ma  vir- 
gin'i-ca). — The  larva  of  this  species  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon hairy  caterpillars  found  feeding  on  herbaceous  plants. 
It  was  named  by  Harris  the  Yellow-bear  on  account  of  the 
long  yellow  hairs  with  which  the  body  is  clothed.  These 
hairs  are  uneven  in  length,  some  scattered  ones  being  twice 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


323 


as  long  as  the  greater  number  of  hairs.  The  long  hairs  are 
more  numerous  near  the  caudal  end  than  elsewhere,  but  are 
nowhere  gathered  into  pencils  as  with  the  Tussock-cater- 
pillars. This  larva  varies  greatly  in  color.  The  body  is  most 
often  of  a  pale  yellow  or  straw  color,  with  a  black,  more  or 
less  interrupted,  longitudinal  line  along  each  side,  and  a 
more  or  less  distinct  transverse  line  of  the  same  color  be- 
tween each  of  the  segments.  Sometimes  the  hairs  are  foxy 
red  or  light  brown,  and  the  body  brownish  or  even  dark 
brown.  The  head  and  the  ends  of  the  feet  and  forelegs  are 
yellowish,  and  the  venter  is  dusky.  The  larva  feeds  on 
almost  any  plant.  The  cocoon  is  light,  and  is  composed 
almost  entirely  of  the  hairs  of  the  caterpillar.  This  insect 
passes  the  winter  in  the  pupa  state  ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
there  are  usually  two  or  more  broods  each  year  ;  but  these 
are  not  well  marked.  The  moth  (Fig.  395)  is  snowy  white, 
with  the  wings  marked  by  a  few 
black  dots  ;  these  vary  in  num- 
ber, but  there  are  rarely  more 
than  three  on  either  wing. 
There  is  a  row  of  black  spots 
on  the  back  of  the  abdomen, 
and  another  on  each  side,  and 
between  these  a  longitudinal  deep  yellow  stripe. 

A  very  large  number  of  species  of  Tiger-moths  belong 

to  the  genus  Eyprepia 
(Ey-pre'pi-a).  These 
are  perhaps  the  most 
striking  in  appear- 
ance of  all  members 
of  the  family.  The 
fore  wings  are  velvety 
black  marked  with 

FIG.  396 — Eypnpia  virgo-  yellowish         Or        pink 

bands  ;  in  some  species  the  lighter  color  predominates,  so 
that  the  fore  wings  appear  to  be  yellow  or  pink,  spotted 


(FlG.  395 — Sfilosoma  virfinica. 


324  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

with  black.  The  hind  wings  are  red,  pink,  or  yellow,  and 
are  margined  or  spotted  with  black.  The  thorax  is  usually 
marked  with  three  black  stripes,  of  which  the  lateral  ones 
are  borne  by  the  patagia.  There  is  also  a  black  line  or  a 
row  of  black  spots  along  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  ab- 
domen, and  a  similar  row  of  spots  on  each  side.  Our  most 
common  species  of  this  genus  is  Eyprepia  virgo  (Fig.  396). 
The  larva  of  this  species  feeds  on  pigweed  and  other  un- 
cultivated plants. 

Family  LlTHOSHD^E  (Lith-o-si'i-dae). 
The  Footman-moths  or  Lithosiids  (Li-tho  si-ids). 

The  Lithosiidae  include  small  moths  with  rather  slender 
bodies,  filiform  antennae,  and  usually  narrow  front  wings  and 
broad  hind  wings.  As  a  rule  they  are  closely  scaled  insects 
of  sombre  colors,  a  fact  that  has  won  for  them  the  title  of 
Footman-moths;  but  in  case  of  some  of  the  species  their 
livery  is  very  gay.  Some  species  fly  by  day,  while  others 
are  attracted  to  lights  at  night. 

This  family  is  closely  allied  to  the  Arctiidse ;  in  fact  it  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  tell  to  which  of  these  families  a  species 
belongs.  Usually  the  Footman-moths  can  be  distinguished 
by  the  absence  of  ocelli ;  but  some  species  possess  very  small 
ones.  The  palpi  are  small  or  moderately  developed ;  the 
maxillae  are  present  and  quite  well  developed.  The  vena- 
tion of  the  waigs  differs  greatly  in  the  different  genera ;  but 
in  its  more  important  features  it  resembles  that  of  the  Arc- 
tiidae. 

The  larvae  are  cylindrical  and  covered  with  short,  stiff 
hairs.  The  majority  of  the  species  whose  transformations 
are  known  feed  upon  lichens.  They  transform  in  very  deli- 
cate cocoons  or  have  naked  pupae.  Among  our  more  com- 
mon species  are  the  following: — 

The  Pale  Footman,  Crambidia  pallida  (Cram-bid'i-a  pal'- 
li-da. — This  moth  is  of  a  uniform  drab  color,  with  the  abdo- 
men and  the  inner  part  of  hind  wings  paler;  it  expands  nine 


LEPIDOP  TERA .  325 

tenths  of  an  inch.  The  moths  of  the  genus  Crambidia  can 
be  recognized  by  the  fact  that  veins  V,  and  V,  of  the  fore 
wings  are  both  wanting,  leaving  cubitus  only  two-branched. 

The  Two-colored  Footman,  Lithosia  bicolor  (Li-tho'si-a 
bi'co-lor). — This  is  larger  than  the  preceding  species,  expand- 
ing from  one  to  one  and  one  half  inches.  It  is  slate-colored, 
with  the  palpi,  the  prothorax,  the  costa  of  the  fore  wings, 
and  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  yellow.  Vein  V,  of  the  fore 
wings  is  wanting,  leaving  cubitus  apparently  three-branched 

The  Striped  Footman,  Hypoprepia  miniata  (Hy-po-pre' 
pi-a  min-i-a'ta). — This  beautiful  moth  is  of  a  deep  scarlet 
color,  with  three  broad  lead-colored  stripes  on  the  front  wings. 
Two  of  the  stripes  extend  the  entire  length  of  the  wings ; 
while  the  third  is  between  these 
and  extends  from  the  end  of  the 
discal  cell  to  the  outer  margin 
(Fig.  397).  The  outer  half  of  the 
hind  wings  is  also  slate-colored. 
Vein  Va  of  the  fore  wings  is  pres-  FlG-  397.-/frA»/«>/«  «"«**«• 
ent ;  but  vein  Va  of  the  hind  wings  is  wanting.  The  larva 
feeds  upon  lichens,  and  may  be  found  under  loose  stones  or 
on  the  trunks  of  trees.  It  is  dusky,  and  thinly  covered 
with  stiff,  sharp,  and  barbed  black  bristles,  which  grow 
singly  from  small  warts.  The  cocoon  is  thin  and  silky. 

The  Painted  Footman,  Hypoprepia  fucosa  (Hy-po-pre'pi-a 
fu-co'sa). — This  species  is  very  similar  to  the  preceding  and 
has  been  confounded  with  it.  With  the  Painted  Footman 
the  ground-color  of  the  fore  wings  is  partly  yellow  and 
partly  red. 

The  Clothed-in-white  Footman,  Clemensia  albata  (< 
men'si-a  al-ba'ta).— The  specific  name  of  this  insect  is  some- 
what misleading  ;  for  although  the  general  color  of  the  moth 
is  white,  there  are  so  many  ashen  and  gray  scales,  and  dark 
spots,  that  the  general  effect  is  gray.  On  the  front  wings 
the  more  prominent  black  spots  are  six  or  seven  on  the 
costa,  one  on  the  discal  vein,  and  a  row  of  small  ones  on  the 


326 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


outer  margin.     The  hind  wings  are  white,  but  finely  dusted 

with  gray  scales.     With  this  species  vein  V,  is  present  in 

both  fore  and  hind  wings. 

The    Banded    Footman,    Cisthene  unifascia  (Cis-the'ne 

u-ni-fas'ci-a). — This  little  beauty  (Fig.  398)  occurs  in  the 
Atlantic  States  from  New  York  to  Texas.  The 
fore  wings  are  lead-colored,  and  crossed  by  a 

FIG  08  —dttkene  ye^ow  band,  which  extends  also  along  the  inner 
HHifasda.       margin  to  the  base  of  the  wings.     The  hind 

wings   are   pink   except   the   apex,  which   is   lead-colored. 

There  is  much  variation  in  the  width  of  the  yellow  band. 

Family  ZYG^ENID^E  (Zy-gaen'i-dae). 
The  Zygcenids  (Zy-gce  nids). 

These  moths  are  most  easily  distinguished  from  the  allied 
families  that  are  rep- 
resented in  this  coun-  nil 
try  by  the  structure 
of  the  hind  wings. 
Here  we  find  the 
tendency  of  veins  II 
and  III  to  coalesce 
carried  to  the  great- 
est extreme,  aiey 
being  joined  clear 
to  the  margin  of  the 
wing  (Fig.  399) ;  oc- 
casionally forms  are 
found  in  which  the 
tips  of  these  two 
veins  are  separate  for 
a  short  distance  near 

the  apex  Of  the  Wing;  FIG.  399— Wings  of  Ctenucha  Virginia. 

and  usually  they  are  separated  for  a  short  distance  near  the 
base  of  the  wing,  as  shown  in  the  figure.    In  some  of  the  more 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


$2? 


specialized  forms,  as  Cosmosoma  (Fig.  400),  the  hind  wings 
are  greatly  reduced  in  size,  and  the  branches  of  radius  and 
cubitus  coalesce  to  a  remarkable 
degree. 

To  the  first  division  of  this 
family  belong  a  small  number 
of  bluish-black  or  brown  moths 
which  have  more  or  less  vermilion 
or  yellow  on  the  head,  prothorax,  FlG'  v»--c*»*°*»««  •»&• 
and  patagia.  These  moths  are  of  medium  size,  expanding 
from  one  and  one  fifth  to  two  inches.  The  dull  color  of  the 
wings  is  usually  relieved  by  the  bright  color  of  the  head  and 
patagia,  and  by  a  layer  of  blue  scales  covering  the  thorax 
and  abdomen  ;  but  in  some  species  these  are  wanting.  The 
larvae  feed  on  grasses.  Some  of  them  strongly  resemble 
those  of  the  Arctiidae  in  appearance  as  well  as  in  habits, 
being  thickly  clothed  with  hair  ;  they  also  spin  cocoons  simi- 
lar to  those  of  Arctiids.  Our  common  forms  represent  two 


FIG.  401.—  Ctenucha.  virginica. 


FIG.  402  —  Scepsis  fulvicolht. 


genera,  Ctenucha  (Cte-nu'cha)  and  Scepsis  (Scep'sis).  In  the 
East  we  have  only  a  single  species  of  each  of  these  genera, 
Ctenucha  virginica  (C.  vir-gin'i-ca),  which  is  represented  by 
Figure  401,  and  Scepsis  fulvicollis  (S.  ful-vi-col'lis),  repre- 
sented by  Figure  402. 

The  second  division  of  the  family 
includes  a  much  larger  number  and  a 
much  greater  variety  of  forms.  Our 
most  common  species  is  Lycomorpha 
pholus  (Ly-co-mor'pha  pho'lus).  This  is  black  with  the 
basal  half  of  the  fore  wings  and  the  basal  third  of  the  hind 


PIG.  403 — L.ycot 
pholus. 


>-//;.. 


328  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

wings  yellow  (Fig.  403).  A  variety  of  this  species  occurs  in 
California  in  which  the  lighter  parts  of  the  wings  are  pinkish 
instead  of  yellow.  These  moths  occur  in  stony  places, 
where  the  larvae  feed  on  lichens  growing  on  rocks. 

In  the  extreme  southern  part  of  our  country  and  in  the 
regions  south  of  that,  there  occur  highly  specialized  mem- 
bers of  this  family,  in  which  the  hind  wings  are  greatly  re- 
duced in  size,  and  the  veins  of  the  hind  wings  coalesce  to  a 
remarkable  degree.  In  some  of  these  forms  the  discal  por- 
tion of  the  wings  bears  but  few  if  any  scales.  Cosmosoma 
auge  (Cos-mo-so'ma  au'ge)  from  Florida  (Fig.  400)  will  serve 
as  an  example  of  these.  In  this  species  the  body  and  legs  are 
bright  red,  with  the  head,  end  of  abdomen,  and  a  dorsal  band 
blue-black  ;  the  veins  and  borders  of  the  wings  are  also  black. 

Family  THYRIDID.E  (Thy-rid'i-dae). 

The  Window-winged  Moths. 

These  little  moths  can  be  easily  recognized  by  the  presence 
of  curious  white  or  yellowish  translucent  spots  upon  the 
wings ;  it  is  these  spots  that  suggests  the  name  Window- 
winged  Moths  for  the  family. 

In  this  family  the  antennae  are  either  strictly  filiform  or 
slightly  thickened  in  the  middle  ; 
the  ocelli  are  wanting  ;  the  palpi 
project  horizontally,  and  are 
somewhat  longer  than  the  head  ; 
and  the  maxillae  are  strongly 
developed.  The  venation  of  the 
wings  differs  from  that  of  all 
other  families  of  moths,  in  that 
all  five  branches  of  radius  of  the 
fore  wings  are  preserved  and  arise 
from  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  404).* 
A  similar  type  of  venation  is 


FIG.  404.— Wings  of  Thy 


*  In  a  single  genus  of  the  Pyromorphids,  Triprocris  (p.   227,  Fig.  268), 
all  the  branches  of  radius  arise  from  the  discal  cell. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  329 

possessed  by  the  Skippers  (Hesperina);  but  the  Window- 
winged  Moths  differ  from  the  Skippers  in  having  a  well- 
developed  frenulum. 

The  early  stages  of  our  species  are  not  known  ;  but  the 
larva  of  a  European  species  lives  upon  the  leaves  of  Cle- 
matis, which  it  rolls  like  a  Tortricid.  This  larva  is  said  to 
appear  like  that  of  a  Chrysomelid  beetle.  It  descends  to 
the  surface  of  the  ground  and  makes  a  dense  silken  cocoon, 
more  or  less  mixed  with  grains  of  sand. 

The  most   common   representative  of  this  family  in  the 
Eastern  and   Middle   States  is  the  Spotted  Thyris,    Thyris 
maculata   (Thy'ris  mac-u-la'ta).      This  species 
(Fig.  405)  is  brownish  black,  sprinkled  with  rust- 
yellow  dots ;  the    outer  margin  of  the   wings, 
especially  of  the  hind  wings,  is  deeply  scal.loped,    FIG  4oj  _Thyris 
with    the    edges    of   the  indentations    white.         maculata. 
There  is  on  each  wing  a  translucent  white   spot ;   that    of 
the    hind  wing  is  larger,  kidney-shaped,  and  almost  divided 
in  two.     This  species  occurs  also  in  the  West,  as  there  are 
specimens  from  Montana  in  the  Cornell  University  collection. 

The  Mournful  Thyris,  Thyris  lugnbris  (Thy'ris  lu-gu'bris), 
is  a  larger  species  found  in  the  Southern 
States.     It  can  be  recognized  by  Figure  406. 
It  is  brownish   black,  marked  with  yellow, 
ns     and  with  the  translucent  spots  yellowish. 

.  w-J  -Family  SPHINGID^:  (Sphin'gi-dae). 

The  Hawk-moths  or  Sphinxes. 

Hawk-moths  are  easily  recognized  by  the  form  of  the 
body,  wings,  and  antennae.  The  body  is  very  stout  and  spin- 
dle-shaped ;  the  wings  are  long,  narrow,  and  very  strong  ;  the 
antennae  are  more  or  less  thickened  in  the  middle  or  towards 
the  tip,  which  is  frequently  curved  back  in  the  form  of  a 
hook  ;  rarely  the  antennae  are  pectinated.  The  sucking-tube 
(maxillae)  is  usually  very  long,  being  in  some  instances  twice 


330 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


as  long  as  the  body ;  but  in  one  subfamily  it  is  short  and 
membranous.  When  not  in  use  it  is  closely  coiled  like  a 
watch-spring  beneath  the  head.  None  of  the  species  have 

ocelli. 

The  venation  of  the  wings  (Fig.  407)  is  quite  character- 
istic ;  the  most  distinctive  feature  is  the  presence  of  what 


VII 


FIG.  407. —  Whigs  of  Phlegethontius  celeus. 

appears  to  be  a  cross-vein  between  subcosta  and  radius  of 
the  hind  wing.  This  apparent  cross-vein  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  veins  II  and  III  are  grown  together  for  a  short  distance, 
and  then  vein  II  separates  and  joins  vein  I.  The  obvious 
presence  of  vein  I  in  the  hind  wings  is  unusual ;  but  it  occurs 
in  the  Psychidae,  in  the  Bombycidae,  and  in  the  Anthroceridae 
(a  family  not  represented  in  our  fauna)  also.  This  basal  part 
of  vein  I  is  probably  preserved  in  other  cases  where  it  appears 
to  be  the  base  of  vein  II.  Thus  in  Citheronia  (Fig.  417)  there 
is  a  rudiment  of  the  so-called  cross-vein,  which  has  entirely 
disappeared  in  the  more  specialized  forms  of  the  family  to 


LEPIDOPTERA.  331 

which  this  genus  belongs.  In  the  Hawk-moths  the  frenu- 
lum  is  usually  well  preserved,  but  in  a  few  it  is  wanting  or 
rudimentary.  In  many  genera  vein  III,  of  the  fore  wings 
coalesces  with  vein  III3to  its  tip,  so  that  vein  III  is  only 
four-branched. 

Some  of  the  Hawk-moths  are  small  or  of  medium  size  ; 
but  most  of  them  are  large.  They  have  the  most  powerful 
wings  of  all  Lepidoptera.  As  a  rule  they  fly  in  the  twilight, 
and  have  the  habit  of  remaining  poised  over  a  flower  while 
extracting  the  nectar,  holding  themselves  in  this  position  by 
a  rapid  motion  of  the  wings.  This  attitude  and  the  whir  of 
the  vibrating  wings  gives  them  a  strong  resemblance  to  hum- 
ming-birds, hence  they  are  sometimes  called  Humming-bird 
Moths  ;  but  they  are  more  often  called  Hawk-moths,  on  ac- 
count of  their  long,  narrow  wings  and  strong  flight. 

Of  all  the  beautifully  arrayed  Lepidoptera  some  of  the 
Hawk-moths  are  the  most  truly  elegant.  There  is  a  high-bred 
tailor-made  air  about  their  clear-cut  wings,  their  closely  fitted 
scales,  and  their  quiet  but  exquisite  colors.  The  harmony  of 
the  combined  hues  of  olive  and  tan,  ochre  and  brown,  black 
and  yellow,  and  grays  of  every  conceivable  shade,  with  touches 
here  and  there  of  rose  color,  is  a  perpetual  joy  to  the  artistic 
eye.  They  seldom  have  vivid  colors  except  touches  of  yel- 
low or  pink  on  the  abdomen  or  hind  wings,  as  if  their  fas- 
tidious  taste  allowed  petticoats  only  of  brilliant  colors  always 
to  be  worn  beneath  quiet-toned  overdresses. 

The  larvse  of  the  Sphingidae  feed  upon  leaves  of  various 
plants  and  trees,  and  are  often  large  and  quite  remarkable 
in  appearance  (Fig.  408).  The  body  is  cylindrical  and 
naked  and  usually  has  a  horn  behind  near  the  end  of  the 
body  on  the  eighth  abdominal  segment.  Sometimes  instead 
of  the  horn  there  is  a  shiny  tubercle  or  knob.  We  cannot 
even  guess  the  use  of  this  horn,  unless  it  is  ornamental,  for 
it  is  never  provided  with  a  sting.  These  caterpillars  when 
resting  rear  the  front  of  the  body  up  in  the  air,  curl  the 
head  down  in  the  most  majestic  manner,  and  remain  thus 


332  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

rigid  and  motionless  for  hours.  When  in  this  attitude  they  are 
supposed  to  resemble  the  Egyptian  Sphinx,  and  so  the  typical 
genus  was  named  Sphinx  and  the  family  the  Sphingidae. 
But  we  think  they  deserve  the  name  independently  of  their 
habits  because  of  the  riddle  they  constantly  propound  to  us 
as  to  why  they  wear  this  horn  on  the  rear  end  of  the  body 
instead  of  on  the  head,  where  it  ought  to  be  in  order  to  be  of 


FIG.  408.— Sphinx  ckersis,  larva. 


any  use  whatever  as  a  horn.  These  caterpillars  are  usually 
of  some  shade  of  green  and  often  are  ornamented  with  a 
series  of  diagonal  stripes  along  each  side. 

Most  species  pass  the  pupa  state  in  the  ground  in  simple 
cells  made  in  the  earth  ;  some,  however,  transform  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  in  imperfect  cocoons  composed  of 
leaves  fastened  together  with  silk. 

Nearly  one  hundred  species  of  Hawk-moths  occur  in 
this  country.  The  following  are  some  of  the  more  common 
ones. 


LEP1DOPTERA. 


333 


The  Modest  Sphinx,  Marumba  modesta  (Ma-rum'ba 
mo-des'ta). — It  was,  probably,  the  quiet  olive  tints  in  which 
the  moth  is  chiefly  clothed  that  suggested  the  name  modesta 
for  it,  but  it  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  Hawk-moths. 
The  body  and  basal  third  of  the  fore  wings  are  pale  olive ; 
the  outer  third  of  the  fore  wings  is  a  darker  shade  of  the 
same  color  ;  while  the  middle  third  is  still  darker  (Fig.  409). 


FlG.  409  — Marumba  modest  a. 

The  hind  wings  are  dull  carmine-red  in  the  middle  ;  there 
is  a  bluish-gray  patch  with  a  curved  black  streak  over  it 
near  the  anal  angle.  The  larva  feeds  on  poplar  and  cotton- 
wood.  When  full  grown  it  is  three  inches  long,  of  a  pale 
green  color,  and  coarsely  granulated,  the  granules  studded 
with  fine  white  points,  giving  the  skin  a  frosted  appearance. 
The  Twin-spotted  Sphinx,  Smerinthus  geminatus  (Sme- 
rin'thus  gem-i-na'- 
tus). — This  exquis- 
itely colored  moth 
expands  about  two 
and  one  half  inches. 
The  thorax  is  gray 
with  a  velvety  dark 
brown  spot  in  the 
middle.  The  fore 
wings  are  gray,  with  a  faint  rosy  tint  in  some  specimens, 


FIG.  4io.-SmeriutAits geminatus. 


334 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


and  tipped  and  banded  with  brown  as  shown  in  Figure 
410.  The  hind  wings  are  deep  carmine  at  the  middle,  and 
are  bordered  with  pale  tan  or  gray.  Near  the  anal  angle 
there  is  a  large  black  spot  in  which  there  is  a  pair  of  blue 
spots,  which  suggested  the  name  geminatus.  The  larva 
feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  apple,  plum,  elm,  ash,  and  willow, 

Harris's  Sphinx,  Ellema  harrisii  (El-le'ma  har-ris'i-i). — . 
This  sphinx  has  interested  us  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
habits  and  markings  of  its  larva  (Fig.  411).  It  feeds  upon 
the  foliage  of  pine,  and  is  colored  with 
alternating  green  and  white  longitudi- 
nal strips ;  the  dorsal  stripe  is  green 
spotted  with  red.  It  has  a  way  of 
hanging  head  downward  in  a  pine  tas- 
sel that  conceals  it  entirely  from  the 
sight  of  all  but  very  sharp  eyes,  its 
stripes  giving  a  close  resemblance  to 
a  bunch  of  pine  leaves.  The  moth  ex- 
pands about  two  inches  ;  it  is  gray  with 
the  fore  wings  marked  by  several  series 
of  small  brown  spots. 

The  Pen- marked  Sphinx,  Sphinx 
chcrsis  (Sphinx  cher'sis). — This  moth  is 
of  an  almost  evenly  distributed  ashy- 
gray  color.  This  sombre  color  is  relieved 
somewhat  by  a  black  band  on  each 
side  of  the  abdomen,  marked  with  four 
or  five  white  transverse  bars ;  by  two 
dark  brown,  smoky  bands  which  cross 
the  hind  wings  ;  and  by  a  series  of  black 
dashes  on  the  fore  wings,  one  in  each 
cell  between  the  apex  of  the  wing  and  the  anal  vein.  These 
dashes  appear  as  if  drawn  casually  with  a  pen.  The  larva  (Fig. 
408)  is  not  uncommon  upon  ash  and  lilac  ;  it  is  greenish 
or  bluish  white  above,  and  darker  below  ;  there  are  seven 
oblique  yellow  bands  on  the  sides  of  the  body,  each  edged 


FIG. 


i.- Ellema  harrisii, 
larva. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  335 

above  with  dark  green.  When  disturbed  it  assumes  the 
threatening  attitude  shown  in  the  figure. 

The  Tomato-worm,  Phlegethontius  celeus  (Phleg-e-thon'- 
ti-us  ce'le-us).  —  This  larva  is  the  best  known  of  all  our 
Sphinxes,  as  it  may  be  found  feeding  on  the  leaves  of 
tomato,  tobacco,  or  potato  wherever  these  plants  are  grown 
in  our  country.  It  resembles  in  its  general  appearance  the 
larva  of  Sphinx  chersis  (Fig.  408);  but  its  favorite  attitude 
is  with  the  fore  end  of  the  body  slightly  raised.  It  is  usu- 
ally green,  but  individuals  are  often  found  that  are  brown, 
or  even  black.  There  appear  at  frequent  intervals  in  the 
newspapers  accounts  of  people  being  injured  by  a  poison 
excreted  by  the  caudal  horn  of  this  larva;  but  there  is 
absolutely  no  foundation  whatever  for  such  stories.  The 
pupa  (Fig.  412)  is  often  ploughed  up  in  gardens,  and  attracts 
attention  on  account  of 
its  curious  tongue-case, 
which  is  free,  resembling 
the  handle  of  a  pitcher. 
The  moth  is  a  superb 

,.  r  FIG.  412. — Phlegethontius  celtus. 

creature,  expanding  four 

or  five  inches.  It  is  of  many  delicate  shades  of  ash-gray, 
marked  with  black  or  very  dark  gray ;  there  are  a  few  short 
black  dashes  on  the  fore  part  of  the  thorax,  and  some  irregular 
black  spots  edged  with  white  on  the  posterior  part;  the 
abdomen  is  gray  with  a  black  middle  line,  and  five  yellow, 
almost  square  spots  along  each  side.  Each  of  these  spots  is 
bordered  with  black,  and  has  a  white  spot  above  and  be- 
low, on  the  edge  of  the  segment.  The  hind  wings  are 
crossed  by  four  blackish  lines,  of  which  the  two  interme- 
diate are  zigzag. 

The  Tobacco-worm,  Phlegethontius  Carolina  (Phleg-e-thon'- 
ti-us  car-o-li'na).— This  species  closely  resembles  the  preced- 
ing, and  the  two  are  often  mistaken  the  one  for  the  other. 
The  larvae  have  similar  habits,  feeding  on  the  same  plants. 
But  the  moths  are  easily  distinguished.  This  species  is  brown- 


336  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

ish  gray  instead  of  ashy  gray  ;  at  the  end  of  the  discal  cell  of 
the  fore  wings  there  is  a  distinct  white  spot ;  and  the  two 
dark  bands  crossing  the  middle  of  the  hind  wings  are  not 
zigzag,  and  are  less  distinctly  separate ;  often  they  are 
united  into  a  single  broad  band. 

The  Hog-caterpillar  of  the  Vine,  Ampelophaga  myron 
(Am-pe-loph'a-ga  my'ron). — There  is  a  group  of  Hawk- 
moths  the  larvae  of  which  have  the  head  and  first  two 
thoracic  segments  small,  while  the  two  following  segments 
are  greatly  swollen.  These  larvae  from  a  fancied  resemblance 
to  fat  swine  have  been  termed  Hog-caterpillars ;  and  the 
present  species,  which  is  common  on  grape,  has  been  named 
the  Hog-caterpillar  of  the  Vine.  It  is  a  comparatively 
small  species,  the  full-grown  larva  being  but  little  more 
than  two  inches  long.  There  is  a  row  of  seven  spots  varying 
in  color  from  red  to  pale  lilac,  each  set  in  a  patch  of  pale 

yellow,  along  the  middle  of 
the  back.  A  white  stripe  with 
dark  green  margins  extends 
along  the  side  from  the  head 

F,o.  n-Antclopkaga  myron,  larva  with      tO    the    Caudal    ^Om,  and    be- 

low    this    are    seven  oblique 

stripes.  This  larva  is  often  infested  by  Braconid  parasites; 
and  it  is  a  common  occurrence  to  find  one  of  them  with  the 
cocoons  of  the  parasites  attached  to  it  (Fig.  413).  The 
pupa  state  is  passed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  within  a 
rude  cocoon  made  by  fastening  leaves  together  with  loose 
silken  threads.  The  adult  expands  about  two  and  one 
fourth  inches.  The  fore  wings  are  olive-gray,  with  a  curved, 
olive-green,  oblique  band  crossing  the  basal  third,  a  discal 
point  of  the  same  color,  and  beyond  this  a  large  triangular 
spot  with  its  apex  on  the  costa  and  its  base  on  the  inner 
margin. 

The  Pandorus  Sphinx,  Philampclus  pandorus  (Phi-lam'pe- 
lus  pan-do'rus).— This  magnificent  moth  expands  from  four 
to  four  and  one  half  inches.  The  ground-color  of  its  wings 


LEPIDOPTERA, 


337 


is  pale  olive,  verging  in  some  places  into  gray  ;  the  markings 
consist  of  patches  and  stripes  of  dark,  rich  velvety  olive, 
sometimes  almost  black  (Fig.  414).  Near  the  inner  margins 
of  both  pairs -of  wings  the  lighter  color  shades  out  into  pale 
yellow,  which  is  tinged  in  places  with  delicate  rose-color. 


FIG.  414 — Philampelus  pandorus. 

These  markings  show  a  harmony  of  contrasting  shades 
rarely  equalled  elsewhere  by  nature  or  art.  The  larva  is 
one  of  the  Hog-caterpillars.  It  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of 
Virginia-creeper.  When  young  it  is  pinkish  in  color,  and 
has  a  long  pinkish  caudal  horn ;  as  it  matures  it  changes  to 
a  reddish  brown,  and  the  horn  shortens  and  curls  up  like 
a  dog's  tail  and  finally  disappears,  leaving  an  eye-like  tuber- 
cle. The  caterpillar  has  on  each  side  six  cream-colored  oval 
spots,  enveloping  the  spiracles. 

The  White-lined  Sphinx,  Deilephila  lineata  (Dei-leph'i-la 
lin-e-a'ta). — This  moth  can  be  easily  recognized  by  Figure 
415.  Its  body  and  fore  wings  are  olive-brown;  there  are 
three  parallel  white  stripes  along  each  side  of  the  thorax ; 
the  outer  one  of  these  extends  forward  over  the  eyes  to  the 
base  of  the  palpi ;  on  the  fore  wings  there  is  a  buff  stripe 
extending  from  near  the  base  of  the  inner  margin  to  the 
apex,  and  veins  III6  to  IX  are  lined  with  white;  the  hind 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


338 

wings  are  black  with  a  central  reddish  band.  The  larva  is 
extremely  variable  in  color  and  markings.  It  feeds  on  many 
plants,  among  which  are  apple,  grape,  plum,  and  currant. 


FIG.  n\*,.—Deilephila  h 

The  Thysbe  Clear-wing,  Hemaris  thysbe  (He-ma'ris 
thys'be). — There  is  a  group  of  Hawk-moths  that  have  the 
middle  portion  of  the  wings  transparent,  resembling  in 
this  respect  the  Sesiidae  and  certain  Zygaenids;  but  they 
are  easily  recognized  as  Hawk- 
moths  by  the  form  of  the 
body,  wings,  and  antennas. 
One  of  the  more  common  of 
these  is  the  Thysbe  Clear- 
wing  (Fig.  416).  The  scaled 
portions  of  the  wings  are  of  a 
dark  reddish  brown  ;  but  this 
species  is  most  easily  distin- 
guished from  our  other  common  species  by  a  line  of  scales 
dividing  the  discal  cell  lengthwise  and  representing  the  po- 
sition of  the  base  of  vein  V.  The  larva  of  this  species  feeds 
on  the  different  species  of  Viburnum,  the  snowberry,  and 
hawthorn. 

The  Bumblebee  Hawk-moth,  Hemaris  diffinis  (He-ma'ris 
dif-fi'nis). — This  Clear-wing  appears  to  be  about  as  common 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


339 


as  the  preceding,  and  resembles  it  somewhat.  It  lacks, 
however,  the  line  of  scales  in  the  discal  cell,  and  the  body 
is  more  nearly  yellow.  This  color  probably  suggested  the 
name  Bumblebee  Hawk-moth,  given  to  this  insect  nearly 
one  hundred  years  ago  by  Smith  and  Abbot.  The  larva 
feeds  on  the  bush  honeysuckle  (Diervilld)  and  the  snow- 
berry  (Symphoricarpus). 

Superfamily  SATURNIINA  (Sa-tur-ni-i'na). 
The  Saturnians  (Sa-tur'ni-ans). 

The  group  of  families  constituting  the  superfamily  Sa- 
turniina  includes  the  largest  of  our  native  moths ;  in  fact 
nearly  all  of  our  very  large  moths  belong  to  it ;  but  it  also 
includes  a  considerable  number  of  species  of  moderate  size. 

These  moths  are  most  easily  distinguished  from  other 
moths  by  the  structure 
of  the  wings  (Fig.  417). 
Here,  as  with  the  Skip- 
pers and  the  Butterflies, 
the  frenulum  is  lost  (or 
nearly  so  in  the  low- 
est family),  and  its  place 
is  taken  by  a  greatly  ex- 
panded humeral  angle 
of  the  hind  wing,  which, 
projecting  under  the 
fore  wing,  insures  the 
acting  together  of  the 
two  in  flight  without  the 
aid  of  a  frenulum.  This 
losing  of  the  frenulum 
is  also  characteristic  of 
the  Lasiocampidae.  But 
the  Saturnians  differ 
from  this  family  in  that 
vein  Vs  arises  midway  between  radius  and  cubitus,  or  is 


viu 


?  _Wings  o(  cithtronia  regalit. 


340  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

more  closely  united  to  radius  than  to  cubitus,  leaVwig  the 
latter  apparently  three-branched  ;  while  in  the  Lasiocampidae 
cubitus  appears  to  be  four-branched. 

This  superfamily  includes  the  Bombycidae  which  are 
represented  in  this  country  only  by  the  Chinese  Silkworm 
and  three  families  of  native  moths.  These  can  be  separated 
by  the  following  table  : — 

A.  Vein  Va  of  the  fore  wings  arising  midway  between  veins  Vi  and 

V3.    p.  340 BOMBYCID^E. 

AA.  Vein  Va  of  the  fore  wings  arising  nearer  to  vein  Vi  than  to  vein 

V8. 

B.  Hind  wings  with  two  anal  veins. 

C.  The  stalk  of  veins  Vi  and  V2  of  the  fore  wings  separating 
from  radius  before  the  end  of  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  420,  c.  v.). 

p.  342 HEMILEUCID.E. 

CC.  Vein  Vi  of  ih&fore  wings  separating  from  radius  beyond  the 

apex  of  the  discal  cell. 

D.  Veins  V,  and  V2  of  the  hind  wings  joined  to  radius  by  a  dis- 
tinct Stalk   (Fig.  417,  C.  Z/.).      p.  343 CITHERONHD/E. 

DD.  Vein  Vi  and  V2  of  the  hind  wings  not  stalked  (Coloradid). 

p.  350 SATURNIID^E. 

BB.  Hind  wings  with  only  one  anal  vein.     p.  350. .  .SATURNIIDJE. 

Family  BOMBYCID.E  (Bom-byc'i-dae). 

The  Silk-worm. 

The  Bombycidae  as  now  restricted  are  not  represented  in 
our  fauna ;  but  a  single 
species,  the  Silk-worm,  is 
frequently  bred  in  this 
country,  and  is  usually 
present  in  collections  of 
Lepidoptera. 

The  Silk-worm,  Bombyx 
mori    (Bom'byx    mo'ri). — • 
The  moth  (Fig.  418)  is  of  a 
FIG.  v&.-Bombyx  mori.  cream-color   with    two    or 

three  more  or  less  distinct   brownish  lines  across  the  fore 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


341 


wings  and  sometimes  a  faint  double  bar  at  the  end  of  the 
discal  cell.  The  head  is  small ;  the  antennae  are  pectinated 
broadly  in  both  sexes;  and  the  ocelli,  palpi,  and  maxillae 
are  wanting.  The  abdomen  and  thorax  are  densely  clothed 
with  woolly  hair.  The  distinctive  feature  in  the  venation  of 
the  wings  (Fig.  419)  is  the  obvious  presence  of  vein  I  on  the 
hind  wings. 

The  usual  food  of  the  Silk-worm  is  the  leaf  of  the  mul- 
berry. Our  native  species,  however,  are  not  suitable.  The 
species  that  are 
most  used  are  the 
white  mulberry 
(Moms  alba),  of 
which  there  are 
several  varieties, 
and  the  black  mul- 
berry (Morus  ni-  >^V  -^"  /vib 

grd);  the  former  is 
the  better.  The 
leaves  of  osage 
orange  (Madura 
aurantiacd)  have 
also  been  used  as 
silk-worm  food  to 
a  considerable  ex- 
tent. In  case  silk- 
worms hatch  in  the 
springbef  ore  either 
mulberry  or  osage- 
orange  leaves  can 
be  obtained,  they 
may  be  quite  sue- 


M 


cessfully  fed,  for  a  few  days,  upon  lettuce-leaves. 

The  newly-hatched  larva  is  black  or  dark  gray,  and  i 
covered  with  long  stiff  hairs,  which  spring  from  pale-coloi 
tubercles.     The  hairs  and  tubercles  are  not  not.ceable  after 


342 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


the  first  molt,  and  the  worm  becomes  lighter  and  lighter, 
until  in  the  last  larval  period  it  is  of  a  cream-white  color. 
There  is  a  prominent  tubercle  on  the  back  of  the  eighth  ab- 
dominal segment,  resembling  those  borne  by  certain  larvae 
of  the  Sphingidae. 

There  are  many  special  treatises  on  this  insect,  some  of 
which  should  be  consulted  by  any  one  intending  to  raise  silk- 
worms. 

Family  HEMILEUCID^E  (Hem-i-leu'ci-dae). 
The  Hemilencids  (Hem-i-leu'cids). 

This  is  a  small  family  containing  rather  large  and  con- 
spicuously marked  insects.  The  antennas  are  broadly  pec- 
tinated in  the  males  and  narrowly  so  or  nearly  serrate  in  the 

females.  There  is  only  a 
iiij+,  single  pair  of  teeth  to  each 
segment  of  the  antennae. 
The  thorax  and  abdomen 
are  usually  thickly  clothed 
with  long  woolly  hair ;  but 
in  some  species  the  cloth- 
ing of  the  antennae  is  less 
woolly  and  more  scale-like. 
As  to  the  wings,  the  frenu- 
lum  is  wanting,  the  humer- 
al angle  of  the  hind  wings 
being  largely  developed 
(Fig.  420);  and  in  both 
fore  and  hind  wings  veins 
V,  and  V3  are  joined  to 
radius  by  a  common  stalk. 
Our  best-known  repre- 
sentative is  the  Maia-moth, 


FIG.  4ao.— Wings  of  H entile 


Hemileuca  maia  (Hem-i-leu'ca  ma'i-a).     In  this  species  (Fig. 
421)  the  wings  are  thinly  scaled,  sometimes  semi-transparent ; 


PLATE  IV. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  343 

they   are    black  with   a   common   white   band    near   their 

middle;  and  the  discal 
veins  are  usually  white 
and  broadly  bordered  with 
black.  There  are  great 
variations  in  the  width  of 
the  white  band  on  the 
wings.  The  larva  feeds  on 
the  leaves  of  oak;  it  is 
brownish  black,  with  a  lat- 

FlG.  421. — Hemileuca  ttiaia.  i  11  • 

eral  yellow  stripe ;   and  is 

armed  on  each  segment  with  large  branching  spines.  This 
species  pertains  to  the  eastern  part  of  the  continent ;  but 
there  are  several  western  species  belonging  to  the  genus. 

In  the  West  there  occur  also  two  species  of  the  genus 
Pseudohazis  (Pseu-do-ha'zis).  These  are  P.  hero.  (P.  he'ra),  in 
which  the  ground-color  of  the  wings  is  white  (Plate  IV),  and 
P.  eglanterina  (P.  eg-lan-te-ri'na),  in  which  the  ground-color 
is  brown.  Both  species  are  spotted  and  striped  with  black. 
In  each  the  abdomen  is  ringed  with  black ;  there  is  a  large 
discal  spot  on  each  wing,  which  frequently  has  a  white  center 
due  to  white  scales  borne  by  the  discal  vein.  The  base  of 
the  wings  is  dusky.  There  is  a  transverse  band  at  the  end 
of  the  basal  third,  which  is  sometimes  wanting  on  the  hind 
wings ;  and  a  broader,  wavy,  transverse  band  crossing  both 
wings  at  the  end  of  the  basal  two  thirds  ;  and  on  each  wing 
there  is  a  series  of  six  or  seven  triangular  black  spots  situ- 
ated on  the  ends  of  the  veins,  at  the  outer  margin  of  the 
wing.  It  should  be  said  that  both  in  the  ground-color  and 
in  the  markings  these  two  forms  vary  much  ;  and  it  is  possi- 
ble that  they  are  merely  varieties  of  one  species. 

Family  ClTHERONHD/E  (Cith-e-ro-ni'i-dae). 

The  Royal-moths. 

The  Royal-moths  are  stout-bodied  and  hairy,  with  sunken 
heads  and  strong  wings.  The  species  are  of  medium  or  large 


344 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


size,  some  of  them  being  nearly  as  large  as  the  largest  of  our 
moths.  The  most  obvious  character  limiting  this  family  is 
the  structure  of  the  antennae  of  the  male.  These  agree  with 
those  of  the  Saturniidae  in  having  two  pairs  of  teeth  to  each 
segment,  but  differ  in  being  pectinated  for  only  a  little  more 
than  half  their  length.  These  moths  also  differ  from  most 
.Saturniidae  in  having  two  anal  veins  in  the  hind  wings.  Al- 
though the  antennae  of  the  male  are  broadly  pectinated, 
those  of  the  female  are  filiform.  The  palpi  and  maxillae  are 
very  small.  The  thorax  and  abdomen  are  densely  clothed 


FIG.  422.-Wings  of  Cithcronia  regali* 


FIG.  423.— Wings  of  Anisota 
ensis. 


with  long  hairs.  The  wings  are  strong,  with  prominent  veins. 
The  frenulum  is  wanting,  and  the  humeral  angle  of  the  hind 
wings  is  very  largely  developed.  In  the  fore  wings  vein  V, 
arises  from  the  discal  vein  (Figs.  422,  423). 

The  larvae  are   armed  with  horns  or  spines,  of  which 
those  on  the  second  thoracic  segment,  and  sometimes  also 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


345 


346  THE   STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 

those  on  the  third,  are  long  and  curved.  These  caterpillars 
eat  the  leaves  of  forest-trees,  and  go  into  the  ground  to  trans- 
form, which  they  do  without  making  cocoons.  The  rings  of 
the  pupa  bear  little  notched  ridges,  the  teeth  of  which,  to- 
gether with  some  strong  prickles  at  the  hinder  end  of  the 
body,  assist  it  in  forcing  its  way  upwards  out  of  the  earth. 

This  is  a  small  family ;  it  is  not  represented  in  Europe, 
and  less  than  twenty  species  are  known  to  occur  in  this 
country.  The  more  common  ones  are  the  following : — 

The  Regal-moth,  CitJieronia  regalis  (Cith-e-ro'ni-a  re-ga'- 
lis). — This  is  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  of  the  Royal- 
moths  (Fig.  424).  The  fore  wings  are  olive-colored,  spotted 
with  yellow,  and  with  the  veins  heavily  bordered  with  red 
scales.  The  hind  wings  are  orange-red,  spotted  with  yellow, 
and  with  a  more  or  less  distinctly  marked  band  outside  the 
middle  olive.  The  wings  expand  from  four  to  six  inches. 

When  fully  grown  the  larva  measures  from  four  to  five 
inches  in  length.  It  is  our  largest  caterpillar,  and  can  be 
readily  recognized  by  the  very  long  spiny  horns  with  which 
it  is  armed.  Those  of  the  mesothorax  and  metathorax  are 
much  longer  than  the  others.  Of  these  there  are  four  on 
each  segment ;  the  intermediate  ones  measure  about  three 
fifths  inch  in  length.  This  larva  feeds  on  various  trees  and 
shrubs. 

The  Imperial-moth,  Basilona  imperialis  (Bas-i-lo'na  im- 
pe-ri-a'lis). —  This  moth  rivals  the  preceding  species  in 
size,  expanding  from  four  to  five  and  one  half  inches.  It 
is  sulphur-yellow,  banded  and  speckled  with  purplish  brown. 
The  full-grown  larva  (Fig.  425)  measures  from  three  to 
four  inches  in  length.  It  is  thinly  clothed  with  long 
hairs,  and  bears  prominent  spiny  horns  on  the  second  and 
third  thoracic  segments.  In  the  early  larval  stages  these 
thoracic  horns  are  very  long  and  spiny,  resembling  those  of 
the  larva  of  the  Regal-moth.  The  larva  feeds  on  hickory 
butternut,  and  other  forest-trees. 

The    Two-colored    Royal-moth,    Sphingicampa    bicolor 


LEPIDOPTERA.  347 

(Sphin-gi-cam'pa  bi'co-lor).— In  this  species  the  upper  side 
of  the  fore  wings  and  the  under  side  of  the  hind  wings  are 
yellowish  brown,  speckled  with  black.  The  under  side  of  the 
fore  wings  and  the  upper  side  of  the  hind  wings  are  to  a  con- 


FIG.  425. — Basilona  imperialis,  larva. 

siderable  extent  pink.  There  is  usually  a  dark  discal  spot 
on  the  fore  wings,  upon  which,  especially  in  the  males,  there 
may  be  two  white  dots.  This  species  is  more  common  in 
the  Southern  States  than  in  the  North.  The  expanse  of 
wings  in  the  male  is  two  inches ;  in  the  female,  two  and  one 
half  inches.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  Honey- 
locust  and  of  the  Kentucky  Coffee-tree. 

Anisota  (An-i-so'ta). — To  the  genus  Anisota  belong  three 
species  of  moths  that  occur  in  the  Eastern  United  States. 
These  moths  are  dark  yellow,  purplish  red,  or  brownish  in 
color,  and  agree  in  having  the  fore  wings  marked  with  a 
white  discal  dot.  The  larvae  feed  on  the  leaves  of  oak ;  they 
are  more  or  less  striped  and  are  armed  with  spines.  These 
insects  hibernate  as  pupae. 

In  determining  these  moths  the  student  should  remem- 
ber that  the  two  sexes  of  the  same  species  may  differ  more 
in  appearance  than  do  individuals  of  different  species  but  of 
the  same  sex.  The  sexes  can  be  distinguished,  as  already 
indicated,  by  the  antennae.  The  three  species  can  be  sepa- 
rated as  follows : — 


348  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

The  Rosy-striped  Oak-worm,  Anisota  virginiensis  (A.  vir- 
gin-i-en'sis). — The  wings  of  the  female  are  purplish  red, 
blended  with  ochre-yellow ;  they  are  very  thinly  scaled,  and 
consequently  almost  transparent ;  and  are  not  speckled  with 
small  dark  spots  (Fig.  426).  The  wings  of  the  male  are 


FlG.  427. — Anisota  virg-iniensis, 
FIG.  426.— Anisota  virginiensis,  female.  male. 

purplish  brown,  with  a  large  transparent  space  on  the  middle 
(Fig.  427).  The  larva  is  of  an  obscure  gray  or  greenish  color, 
with  dull  brownish  yellow  or  rosy  stripes,  and  with  its  skin 
rough  with  small  white  warts.  There  is  a  row  of  short  spines 
on  each  segment,  and  two  long  spines  on  the  mesothorax. 

The  Orange-striped  Oak-worm,  Anisota  senatoria  (A.  sen- 
a-to'ri-a). — The  wings  of  the  female  are  more  thickly  scaled 
than  in  the  preceding  species  and  are  sprinkled  with  numer- 
ous blackish  dots  ;  in  other  respects  the  two  are  quite  similar 
in  coloring.  The  male  differs  from  that  of  A.  virginiensis 
in  lacking  the  large  transparent  space  on  the  middle  of  the 
wings.  The  larva  is  black,  with  four  orange-yellow  stripes 
on  the  back  and  two  along  each  side ;  its  spines  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  preceding  species. 

The  Spiny  O^k-worm,  Anisota  stigma  (A.  stig'ma). — The 
female  closely  resembles  that  of  A.  senatoria;  and  as  both 
species  are  variable  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine 
to  which  a  given  specimen  belongs.  In  A.  stigma  the  wings 
are  rather  darker  and  have  a  greater  number  of  blackish  spots, 
and  the  hind  wings  are  furnished  with  a  middle  band  which 
is  heavier  and  more  distinct  than  in  A.  senatoria.  The  male 
differs  from  that  of  the  other  two  species  in  quite  closely 


LEPIDOPTERA.  349 

resembling  the  female  in  coloring,  and  in  having  the  wings 
speckled.  The  larva  differs  from  the  other  species  of  Ani- 
sota  in  having  long  spines  on  the  dorsal  aspect  of  the  third 
thoracic  and  each  abdominal  segment  in  addition  to  the 
much  longer  spines  on  the  mesothorax.  It  is  of  a  bright 
tawny  or  orange  color,  with  a  dusky  stripe  along  its  back 
and  dusky  bands  along  its  sides. 

The  Rosy  Dryocampa,  Dryocampa  rubicunda  (Dry-o- 
cam'pa  ru-bi-cun'da). — The  wings  of  this  moth  (Fig.  428) 
are  pale  yellow,  banded 
with  rose-color.  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  color  varies 
greatly  in  different  speci- 
mens. In  some  the  pink 
of  the  fore  wings  predomi- 
nates, the  yellow  being  re- 
duced to  a  broad  discal 

.  .  FIG.  428.— Dryocampa  rubicunda. 

band,  while  in  one  variety 

the  ground-color  is  yellowish  white  and  the  pink  is  reduced 
to  a  shade  at  the  base  and  a  narrow  stripe  outside  the  mid- 
dle. The  hind  wings  may  be  entirely  yellow,  or  may  have  a 
pink  band  outside  the  middle.  The  expanse  of  wings  in 
the  male  is  one  and  one  half  to  one  and  three  fourths  inches  ; 
in  the  female,  two  inches  or  more. 

The  larva  of  this  species  is  known  as  the  Green-striped 
Maple-worm,  and  is  sometimes  a  serious  pest  on  soft-maple 
shade-trees.  It  measures  when  full  grown  about  one  and 
one  half  inches.  It  is  pale  yellowish  green,  striped  abov< 
with  eight  very  light,  yellowish-green  lines,  alternating  with 
seven  of  a  darker  green,  inclining  to  black.  There  are  two 
prominent  horns  on  the  second  thoracic  segment,  and  two 
rows  of  spines  on  each  side  of  the  body,  one  above  and  one 
below  the  spiracles.  And  on  the  eighth  and  ninth  abdomi- 
nal  segments  there  are  four  prominent  dorsal  spines, 
species  is  one-  or  two-brooded,  and  winters  in  the  pupa 
state. 


350 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Family  SATURNIID^:  (Sat-ur-ni'i-dae). 
The  Giant  Silk-worms. 

The  large  size  of  the  members  of  the  Saturniidae,  arid  the 
ease  with  which  the  cocoons  of  most  of  the  species  can  be 
collected,  render  them  well  known  to  every  beginner  in  the 
study  of  entomology.  The  family  includes  our  largest  lepi- 
dopterous  insects ;  and  all  of  the  species  known  to  us  are 
above  medium  size.  They  are  stout-bodied,  hairy  moths, 
with  more  or  less  sunken  heads,  and  strong,  wide  wings. 
They  may  be  distinguished  from  the  Citheroniidae,  some 
of  which  rival  them  in  size,  by  the  form  of  the  antennae  of 
the  males,  and  by  the  fact  that  except  in  the  lowest  genus, 
Coloradia,  which  is  a  rare  insect  from  the  far  West,  the 

hind  wings  are  furnished 
with  only  one  inner  vein. 
The  adults  fly  at  night,  and 
are  attracted  by  lights. 

The  head  is  small  and 
deeply  sunken  in  the  thorax  ; 
the  antennae  are  either  fili- 
form or  pectinated  in  the 
females,  but  always  pecti- 
nated in  the  males ;  and  the 
pectinations  extend  to  the 
tip.  Where  the  antennae  of 
both  sexes  are  pectinated, 
the  males  can  be  distin- 
guished by  the  larger  size  of 
their  antennae.  The  palpi 
are  small,  and  the  maxillae 
p..  w.  but  little  developed,  often 

rio.  429.— Wings  of  Samia  cecropia. 

obsolete. 

The  thorax  is  densely  clothed  with  hair.  The  wings  are 
broad,  and  are  often  furnished  with  transparent,  window- 
like  spots.  The  frenulum  is  wanting.  The  humeral  angle 


LEPIDOPTERA.  351 

of  the  hind  wing  is  largely  developed,  and  is  usually  strength- 
ened by  a  deep  furrow,  the  bottom  of  which  is  sometimes 
thickened  so  as  to  appear  like  a  humeral  vein  (Fig.  429). 

The  larvae  live  exposed  on  the  leaves  of  trees  and  shrubs  ; 
they  are  more  or  less  armed  with  tubercles  and  spines,  and 
are  very  conspicuous  on  account  of  their  large  size.  They 
transform  within  silken  cocoons,  which  are  usually  very 
dense,  and  in  some  cases  have  been  utilized  by  man.  These 
cocoons  are  often  attached  to  trees  and  shrubs,  and  are 
sometimes  inclosed  in  a  leaf.  They  can  be  easily  collected 
during  the  winter  months,  and  the  adults  bred  from  them. 

The  following  species  are  those  that  the  young  student 
is  most  likely  to  find  : — 

The  lo-moth,  Automeris  io  (Au-tom'e-ris  i'o). — This 
is  the  most  common  of  the  smaller  species  of  the  family. 
The  female  is  represented  by  Figure  430.  In  this  sex  the 


i  430^  —  A  utomeris  io. 


ground-color  of  the  fore  wings  is  purplish  red.  The  male 
differs  greatly  in  appearance  from  the  female,  being  some- 
what smaller  and  of  a  deep  yellow  color,  but  it  can  be  easily 
recognized  by  its  general  resemblance  to  the  female  in  other 
respects. 

The  larva  is  one  that  the  student  should  learn  to  recog- 
nize in  order  that  he  may  avoid  handling  it  ;  for  it  is  armed 


352 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


with  spines  the  prick  of  which  is  venomous  (Fig.  431).     It 

is  green,  with  a  broad 
brown  or  reddish  stripe, 
edged  below  with  white, 
on  each  side  of  the  abdo- 
men. The  spines  are 

The  Polyphemus-moth,  Telea  polyphemus  (Te'le-a  pol-y- 
phe'mus). — This  is  a  yellowish  or  brownish  moth  with  a 
window-like  spot  in  each  wing.  There  is  a  gray  band  on 
the  costal  margin  of  the  fore  wings  ;  and  near  the  outer  mar- 
gin of  both  pairs  of  wings  there  is  a  dusky  band,  edged 


FIG.  432.—  Telea  polyphe,  . 

without  with  pink ;  the  fore  wings  are  crossed  by  a  broken 

sky  or  reddish  line  near  the  base,  edged  within  with  white 

:>r  pink.     The  transparent  spot  on  each  wing  is  divided  by 

discal  vein,  and   encircled   by  yellow  and   black  rings. 


PLATE  V. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  353 

On  the  hind  wings  the  black  surrounding  the  transparent 
spot  is  much  widened,  especially  toward  the  base  of  the 
wing,  and  is  sprinkled  with  blue  scales.  The  wings  expand 
from  five  to  six  inches. 

The  larva  (Fig.  432)  feeds  on  oak,  butternut,  basswood, 
elm,  maple,  apple,  plum,  and  other  trees.  When  full  grown 
it  measures  three  inches  or  more  in  length.  It  is  of  a  light 
green  color  with  an  oblique  yellow  line  on  each  side  of  each 
abdominal  segment  except  the  first  and  last ;  the  last  segment 
is  bordered  by  a  purplish-brown  V-shaped  mark.  The 
tubercles  on  the  body  are  small,  of  an  orange  color  with  me- 
tallic reflections.  The  co- 
coon (Fig.  433)  is  dense 
and  usually  enclosed  in  a 
leaf  ;  it  can  be  utilized  for 
the  manufacture  of  silk. 
When  the  adult  is  ready 
to  emerge,  it  excretes  a 
fluid  which  softens  the 
cocoon  at  one  end,  and  FlG"  433.-™ 

breaking  the  threads  it  makes  its  exit  through  a  large  round 
hole. 

The  Luna  Moth,  Tropaa  luna  (Tro-pae'a  lu'na). — This 
magnificent  moth  is  a  great  favorite  with  amateur  collectors 
(Plate  V).  Its  wings  are  of  a  delicate  light  green  color,  with 
a  purple-brown  band  on  the  costaof  the  fore  wings;  there  is 
an  eye-like  spot  with  a  transparent  center  on  the  discal 
vein  of  each  wing;  and  the  anal  angle  of  the  hind  wings  is 
greatly  prolonged.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  wal- 
nut, hickory,  and  other  forest-trees.  It  measures  when  full 
grown  about  three  inches  in  length.  It  is  pale  bluish  green 
with  a  pearl-colored  head.  It  has  a  pale  yellow  stripe  along 
each  side  of  the  body,  and  a  transverse  yellow  line  on  the 
back  between  each  two  abdominal  segments.  The  cocoon 
resembles  that  of  the  preceding  species  in  form,  but  is  very 
thin,  containing  but  little  silk. 


354  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  Promethea  Moth,  Callosamiapromcthea(Ca\-\o-s2i'rc\\-di 
pro-me'the-a).— This  is  the  most  common  of  the  Giant  Silk- 
worms. The  wings  of  the  female  (Fig.  434)  are  light  reddish 


j.  \T>\.—Callosa.mia  fromethea,  female. 

brown  ;  the  transverse  line  crossing  the  middle  of  the  wings  is 
whitish,  bordered  within  with  black  ;  the  outer  margin  of  the 
wings  is  clay-colored,  and  each  wing  bears  an  angular  discal 
spot.  The  discal  spots  vary  in  size  and  distinctness  in  different 
specimens.  The  male  differs  so  greatly  from  the  female  that 
it  is  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  a  distinct  species.  It  is  black- 
ish, with  the  transverse  lines  very  faint,  and  with  the  discal 
spots  wanting  or  very  faintly  indicated.  The  fore  wings  also 
differ  markedly  in  shape  from  those  of  the  female,  the  apex 
being  much  more  distinctly  sickle-shaped.  The  larva  when 
full  grown' measures  two  inches  or  more  in  length.  It  is  of 
a  clear  and  pale  bluish-green  color ;  the  legs  and  anal  shield 
are  yellowish  ;  and  the  body  is  armed  with  longitudinal  rows 
of  tubercles.  The  tubercles  are  black,  polished,  wart-like 
elevations,  excepting  two  each  on  the  second  and  third 
thoracic  segments,  which  are  larger  and  rich  coral-red,  and 
one  similar  in  size  to  these  but  of  a  yellow  color  on  the 
eighth  abdominal  segment.  This  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves 


LEPIDOPTERA.  355 

of  a  large  proportion  of  our  common  fruit  and  forest  trees ; 
but  we  have  found  it  more  frequently  on  wild  cherry  and 
ash  than  on  others.  The  cocoons  can  be  easily  collected 
during  the  winter  from  these  trees.  This  is  the  best  way  to 
obtain  fresh  specimens  of  the  moths,  which  will  emerge  from 
the  cocoons  in  the  spring  or  early  summer.  The  cocoon 
(Fig.  435)  is  interesting  in  structure.  It  is  greatly  elongated 
and  is  enclosed  in  a  leaf,  the 
petiole  of  which  is  securely  fast- 
ened to  the  branch  by  a  band 
of  silk  extending  from  the  co- 
coon ;  thus  the  leaf  and  enclosed 
cocoon  hang  upon  the  tree 
throughout  the  winter.  At  the 
upper  end  of  the  cocoon  there 
is  a  conical  valve  like  arrange- 
ment which  allows  the  adult  to 
emerge  without  the  necessity 
of  making  a  hole  through  the 
cocoon.  This  structure  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  cocoons  of  the 
moths  of  this  and  the  following 
genus. 

The  Angulifera  Moth,  Callo- 
samia  angulifera  (C.  an-gu-lif'e- 
ra). — This  is  a  somewhat  rare  in- 
sect which  so  closely  resembles 
the  Promethea  Moth  that  by 
many  it  is  considered  a  variety 
of  it.  Specimens  of  it  are  usu- 
ally a  little  larger  than  those  of 
C.  promethea,  and  the  transverse 
line  and  discal  spots  are  more 
angular.  The  most  important  FlG^_Ca^amia/rfme(Jkf<,>cocooa. 
differences,  however,  are  pre- 
sented by  the  male,  which  quite  closely  resembles  the  female 


356 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


of  the  Promethea  Moth  in  color  and  markings,  and   thus 
differs  decidedly  from  the  male  of  that  species. 

The  Cecropia  Moth,  Samia  cecropia  (Sa'mi-a  ce-cro'pi-a).— 
This  is  the  largest  of  our  Giant  Silk-worms,  the  wings  of  the 
adult  expanding  from  five  to  six  and  one  half  inches.     The 
ground  color  of  the  wings  is  a  grizzled  dusky  brown,  espe- 
cially on  the  central  area.     The  wings  are  crossed  beyond  the 
middle  by  a  white  band,  which  is  broadly  margined  without 
with  red.  and  there  is  a  red  spot  near  the  apex  of  the  fore 
wing  just  outside  of  a  zigzag  line.     Each  wing  bears  near 
its  center  a  crescent-shaped  white  spot  bordered  with  red. 
The  outer  margin  of  the  wings  is  clay-colored.     The  larva 
is  known  to  feed  on  at  least  fifty  species  of  plants,  including 
apple,  plum,  and  the  more  common  forest  trees.     When  full 
grown  it  measures  from  three  to  four  inches  in  length  and  is 
dull  bluish  green  in  color.     The  body  is  armed  with  six  rows 
of  tubercles,  extending  nearly  its  entire  length,  and  there  is 
an  additional  short  row  on  each 
side  on    the  ventral  aspect  of 
the  first  five  segments  follow- 
ing  the  head.    The  tubercles  on 
the  second   and  third  thoracic 
segments  are  larger  than    the 
others,  and  are  coral-red.    The 
other  dorsal  tubercles  are  yellow,  excepting  those  of  the  first 
thoracic  and  last  abdominal  segments,  which  with  the  lateral 
tubercles  are  blue ;  all  are  armed  with  black  bristles.     The 


FIG.  436.— Sa 


FIG.  437. — Samia  c 


LEPIDOPTERA.  357 

pupa  is  represented  by  Figure  436  and  the  cocoon  by  Figure 

437- 

The  Cecropia-moth  occurs  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  In  the  far  West  its  place  is  taken  by 
very  closely  allied  forms,  which  are  supposed  to  be  distinct. 
In  these  the  ground-color  of  the  wings  is  usually  a  reddish 
or  dusky  brown.  The  form  occurring  in  Utah  and  Arizona 
is  Samia  gloveri  (S.  glov'er-i) ;  that  found  on  the  Pacific 
coast  is  Samia  californica. 

The  Ailanthus-worm,  Philosamia  cynthia  (Phil-o-sa'mi-a 
cyn'thi-a),  is  an  Asiatic  species  that  has  been  introduced  into 
this  country.  It  has  become  a  pest  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York, 
where  it  infests  the  Ailanthus  shade-trees.  The  moth  differs 
from  all  our  native  species  of  this  family  in  having  rows  of 
tufts  of  white  hairs  on  the  abdomen.  The  cocoon  resembles 
that  of  the  Promethea-moth. 

Family  LACOSOMID^E  (Lac-o-som'i-dae). 
The  Sack-bearing  Frenulum-losers. 

This  family  so  far  as  is  now  known  includes  only  two 
species  that  are  found  in  the  United  States,  and  both  of 
these  are  rare  ;  farther  south  several  other  species  occur. 
They  are  our  only  native  Frenulum-losers  that  retain  a  rudi- 
ment of  thefrenulum,  but,  as  in  the  silk-worm,  this  frenulum 
is  very  small  and  the  humeral  angle  is  greatly  expanded,  so 
it  is  probable  that  the  frenulum  is  of  but  little  if  any  use 
(Fig.  438).  It  was  the  presence  of  this  rudiment  that  first 
suggested  to  the  writer  that  those  families  of  the  Lepidop- 
tera  that  we  have  termed  Frenulum-losers  were  descended 
from  frenulum-bearing  ancestors. 

The  Lacosomidse  seem  to  be  the  sole  survivors  of  a  very 
distinct  line  of  descent.  In  many  respects  they  appear  to 
be  closely  allied  to  the  Saturniina,  especially  to  the  Bom- 
bycidae.  But  they  differ  markedly  both  in  the  structure  and 
in  the  habits  of  the  larvae ;  and,  too,  the  wings  of  the  adult, 


358  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS, 

although  at  first  sight  resembling  those  of  the  silk-worm,  are 

really  quite  different. 
In  the  coalescence  of 
the  branches  of  ra- 
dius of  the  fore  wings 
veins  III,  and  III4 
remain  separate, 
while  in  the  Satur- 
niina  these  are  the 
first  branches  to  coa- 
lesce. And  in  the 
hind  wings  there  is 
no  indication  that 
vein  I  becomes  joined 
to  the  base  of  vein 
II  as  is  shown  to  be 
the  case  in  the  most 
generalized  S  a  t  u  r - 
niina  (Figs.  417  and 
419). 

The  members  of 
FIG.  438.-Wing8of  cidnnus  mehheimeriL          this  family  in  the  lar- 
val  state  feed  upon  leaves,  and  protect  themselves  by  mak- 
ing a  case  of  leaves  within  which  they  live  (Fig.  439). 


FIG.  439.— Case  of  larva  of 


FIG.  440. — Cicinnus  inelsheimerii 


Melsheimer's  Sack-bearer,  Cicinnus  melsheimerii  (Ci-cin'- 
nus  mels-hei-me'ri-i). — The  larva  of  this  species  feeds  on  oak. 
The  adult  moth  (Fig.  440)  is  of  a  reddish  gray  color,  finely 
sprinkled  all  over  with  minute  black  dots ;  there  is  a  small 
black  spot  at  the  end  of  the  discal  cell  of  the  fore  wings ; 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


359 


and  both  pairs  of  wings  are  crossed  by  a  narrow  blackish 
band.  This  species  is  quite  widely  distributed  ;  but  is  quite 
rare  in  most  places. 

The  other  representative  of  this  family  found  in  the 
United  States  is  Lacosoma  chiridota  (Lac-o-so'ma  chir-i-do'- 
ta).  This  species  is  even  more  rare  than  the  preceding;  it  is 
somewhat  smaller,  and  dark  yellowish  brown  in  color ;  but 
its  general  appearance  is  very  similar.  The  venation  of  the 
wings  is  also  similar  to  that  of  Cicinnus  except  that  vein 
VIII  of  the  hind  wing  is  wanting. 


Family  LASIOCAMPID^E  (Las-i-o-cam'pi-dae). 
The  Lasiocampids  (Las-i-o-cam  pids). 

This  family  includes  the  Tent-caterpillars  and  the  Lap- 
pet-caterpillars. The  adults  are  stout-bodied,  hairy  moths  of 
medium  size.  The  antennae 
are  pectinated  in  both  sexes, 
and  are  from  one  fourth  to 
one  half  as  long  as  the  front 
wings;  the  teeth  of  the  an- 
tennae of  the  male  are  usu- 
ally much  longer  than  those 
of  the  female.  The  ocelli  a 
wanting  ;  and  the  palpi  are 
usually  short  and  woolly. 
But  the  most  distinctive  char- 
acteristic is  found  in  the 
wings.  The  frenulum  is  want- 
ing, there  being  instead,  as 
in  the  Saturniina,  a  largely- 
expanded  humeral  angle  of 
the  hind  wings.  But  these 
moths  differ  from  the  Satur- 
niina in  having  cubitus  ap-  "=•  44.-w.-n  of  c/**™/. *.* 

parently    four-branched   and    in    having  the  humeral  angle 


360  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

strengthened  by  the  development  of  some  extra  veins,  the 
humeral  veins  (Fig.  441,  //.  v.\* 

The  larvae  of  the  Lasiocampids  feed  upon  the  foliage  of 
trees,  and  are  frequently  very  destructive. 

The  family  is  a  small  one,  less  than  thirty  North  Ameri- 
can species  being  known  to  entomologists.  Our  more  com- 
mon ones  represent  three  genera  :  Clisiocampa  (Clis-i-o-cam'- 
pa),  which  includes  the  Tent-caterpillars,  and  PJiyllodesma 
(Phyl-lo-des'ma)  and  Tolype  (Tol'y-pe),  which  include  the 
Lappet-caterpillars. 

There  are  several  species  of  Tent-caterpillars  in  this 
country.  Most  of  them  belong  to  the  Pacific  coast;  but 
two  are  common  in  the  East.  Of  these  the  most  com- 
mon one  is  the  Apple-tree  Tent -caterpillar,  Clisiocampa 
americana  (C.  a-mer-i-ca'na).  This  is  the  insect  that  builds 
large  webs  in  apple  and  wild  cherry  trees  in  early  spring. 
Figure  442  represents  its  transformations.  The  moth  is  dull 
yellowish  brown  or  reddish  brown,  with  two  transverse 
whitish  or  pale  yellowish  lines  on  the  fore  wings.  The 
figure  represents  a  male ;  the  female  is  somewhat  larger. 
These  moths  appear  early  in  the  summer.  The  eggs  are 
soon  laid,  each  female  laying  all  her  eggs  in  a  single  ring-like 
cluster  about  a  twig;  and  here  they  remain  unhatched  for 
about  nine  months.  This  cluster  is  covered  with  a  substance 
which  protects  it  during  the  winter.  The  eggs  hatch  in 
early  spring,  at  the  time  or  just  before  the  leaves  appear. 
The  larvae  that  hatch  early  feed  upon  the  unopened  buds 
till  the  leaves  expand.  The  larvae  are  social,  the  entire 
brood  that  hatch  from  a  cluster  of  eggs  keeping  together 
and  building  a  tent  in  which  they  live  when  not  feeding. 
The  figure  represents  a  specimen  in  our  collection.  In  this 
case  the  tent  was  begun  near  the  cluster  of  eggs.  But  usu- 

*So  far  as  we  know,  humeral  veins  occur  nowhere  else  in  the  Lepidoptera, 
although  in  many  butterflies  vein  I  of  the  hind  wings  is  preserved  and 
appears  like  a  humeral  vein.  The  humeral  veins  of  the  Lasiocampida  do  not 
represent  any  of  the  primitive  veins,  but  are  developed  secondarily. 


LEPIDOPTERA, 


361 


ally  the  larvae  soon  after  hatching  migrate  down  the  branch 
towards  the  trunk  of  the  tree  until  a  fork  of  considerable 
size  is  reached  before  they  begin  their  tent.  This  is  neces 
sary,  as  the  completed  tent  often  measures  two  feet  or  more 
m  length.  The  larvae  leave  the  nest  daily  in  order  to  feed  • 
and  spin  a  silken  thread  wherever  they  go.  The  larvae  be' 


FIG.  442. — Clisiocatnpa  antericana,  eggs,  tent,  larva,  cocoons,  and  adult. 


come  full  grown  early  in  June  ;  one  of  them  is  represented 
on  a  partially-eaten  leaf  in  the  figure.  When  ready  to 
transform  they  leave  the  trees  and  make  their  cocoons  in 
some  sheltered  place.  These  cocoons  are  quite  peculiar  in 
appearance,  having  a  yellowish  white  powder  mixed  with 
the  silk.  The  pupa  state  lasts  about  three  weeks. 

The  easiest  way  to  fight  this  pest  is  to  destroy  the  webs 
containing  the  larvae  as  soon  as  they  appear  in  the  spring. 
This  should  be  done  early  in  the  morning,  or  late  in  the 


362  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

afternoon,  or  on  a  cold  day,  when  the  larvae  are  not  scat- 
tered over  the  tree  feeding. 

The  other  Eastern  species  of  this  genus  is  the  Tent-cater- 
pillar of  the  Forest,  Clisiocampa  disstria  (C.  dis'stri-a).  This 
species  resembles  the  preceding  in  habits.  It  is  more  apt, 
however,  to  feed  upon  forest-trees.  The  moth  differs  from 
C.  americana  in  having  the  oblique  lines  on  the  wings  dark 
instead  of  light;  the  larva  differs  in  having  a  row  of  spots 
along  the  back  instead  of  a  continuous  narrow  line ;  and 
the  egg-masses  differ  in  ending  squarely  instead  of  being 
rounded  at  each  end. 

The  more  common  species  of  the  Pacific  coast  are  Clisio- 
campa californica,  whose  nests  may  be  found  on  oaks  in 
March  and  April,  and  Clisiocampa  constricta,  which  infests 
fruit-trees  later  in  the  season.  The  caterpillars  of  the  last- 
named  species  do  not  make  a  tent,  although  they  live  in 
colonies. 

The  larvae  of  Tolype  and  Phyllodesma  are  remarkable  for 
having  on  each  side  of  each  segment  a  little  lappet  or  flat 
lobe ;  from  these  many  long  hairs  are  given  out,  forming  a 
fringe  to  the  body.  When  at  rest  the  body  of  the  larva  is 
flattened,  and  the  fringes  on  the  sides  are  closely  applied  to 
the  surface  of  the  limb  on  which  the  insect  is.  Thus  all  ap- 
pearance of  an  abrupt  elevation  is  obliterated ;  the  colors 
of  these  larvae  are  also  protective,  resembling  those  of  the 
bark. 

The  genus  Tolype  includes  only  two  common  North 
^^^  v  .  .^fift  -American  species ;  both  of  these 

f$bb^jj££^^KKj/  occur  in  the  East.     The  more  com- 

V^s-  JR?     mon    of  the   two    is   the   Velleda 

B&      Lappet,    Tolype   -velleda  (Tol'y-pe 

^^  I    1^^^      vel'le-da).     The  body  of  the  moth 

PP  is  milk-white,  with  a  large  black- 

„„  ish  spot  on  the  middle  of  its  back 

FIG.  443-—  retype  velleda.  .     r 

(Fig.  443).     That  part  of  this  spot 
which  is  on  the  thorax  is  composed  of  erect  scales ;  the  cau- 


LEPIDOPTERA.  363 

dal  part,  of  recumbent  hairs.  The  wings  are  dusky  gray, 
crossed  by  white  lines  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  figure 
represents  the  male  ;  the  female  is  much  larger.  The  moths 
are  found  in  August  and  September.  The  larva  feeds  upon 
the  leaves  of  apple,  poplar,  and  syringa.  Its  body  is  bluish 
gray,  with  many  faint  longitudinal  lines ;  and  across  the  back 
of  the  last  thoracic  segment  there  is  a  narrow  velvety-black 
band.  The  larva  reaches  maturity  during  July.  The  cocoon 
is  brownish  gray,  and  is  usually  attached  to  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  tree  on  which  the  larva  has  fed. 

The  second  species  of  this  genus  is  known  as  the  Larch 
Lappet,  Tolype  laricis  (T.  lar'i-cis).  This  is  a  smaller  species, 
the  females  being  about  the  size  of  the  male  of  the  preced- 
ing species,  and  the  males  expanding  only  about  one  and 
one  fourth  inches.  The  wings  of  the  females  are  marked 
much  like  those  of  T.  velleda,  except  that  the  basal  two 
thirds  of  the  front  wings  are  much  lighter,  and  the  dark 
band  on  the  outer  third  is  narrower  and  much  darker  than 
the  other  dark  bands.  The  males  are  bluish  black,  with  the 
markings  indistinct.  The  larva  feeds  upon  the  larch.  When 
mature  it  is  of  a  dull  brown  color  and  less  than  one  and  one 
half  inches  in  length.  When  extended  the  front  of  the  first 
thoracic  segment  is  pale  green,  and  the  incision  between 
the  second  and  third  is  shining  black.  The  larva  matures 
during  July.  The  cocoon  is  ash-gray,  flattened  and  moulded 
to  the  limb  to  which  it  is  attached,  and  partially  surround- 
ing it.  The  moths  appear  in  August  or  September.  The 
winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  state. 

The  genus  Phyllodesma  includes 
three  Califcrnian  and  two  Eastern 
species.  The  more  common  one  of 
the  latter  is  the  American  Lappet, 
P.  americana  (Fig.  444).  The  moth 
is  reddish  brown,  with  the  inner  angle  FIG. 
of  the  front  wings  and  the  costal 
margin  of  the  hind  wings  deeply  notched.  Beyond  the  mid- 


364 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


die  of  each  wing  there  is  a  pale  band  edged  with  zigzag,  dark 
brown  lines.  The  larva  lives  upon  apple,  cherry,  oak,  birch, 
maple,  and  ash.  When  full  grown  it  measures  two  and 
one  half  inches  in  length  and  one  half  inch  in  breadth. 
The  upper  side  is  slate-gray,  mottled  with  black,  with  two 
transverse  scarlet  bands,  one  on  the  second  and  one  on  the 
third  thoracic  segments.  There  is  a  black  spot  at  each  end 
and  in  the  middle  of  each  of  these  bands.  The  larva  is 
found  during  July  and  August.  It  is  said  that  the  cocoons 
are  attached  to  limbs  like  those  of  Tolype  ;  but  the  larvae  of 
this  species  which  we  have  bred  made  their  cocoons  between 
leaves,  or  in  the  folds  of  the  muslin  bag  enclosing  the  limb 
upon  which  they  were  feeding.  The  species  passes  the 

winter  in  the  pupa  state  ; 

and  the  moth  appears  in 
y  '  June,  when  it  lays  its 

eggs  upon  the   leaves   of 

the  trees  it  infests. 

Superfamily  HESPERIINA 
(Hes-per-i-i'na). 

The  Skippers. 
The  Skippers  are  so 
called  on  account  of  their 
peculiar  mode  of  flight. 
They  fly  in  the  daytime 
and  dart  suddenly  from 
place  to  place.  When  at 
rest  most  species  hold  the 
wings  erect  in  a  vertical 
position  like  butterflies; 
in  some  the  fore  wings 
are  thus  held  while  the 
hind  wings  are  extend- 


few  extend  both  pairs  of  wings  horizontally.     The  antennae 


LEPIDOPTERA.  365 

are  thread-like,  and  enlarged  toward  the  tip;  but  in  most 
cases  the  extreme  tip  is  pointed  and  recurved,  forming  a 
hook.  The  abdomen  is  usually  stout,  resembling  that  of 
a  moth  rather  than  that  of  a  butterfly.  The  skippers  are 
most  easily  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  venation  of  the 
fore  wings,  vein  III  being  five-branched,  and  all  the 
branches  arising  from  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  445).  In  some 
butterflies  all  the  branches  of  vein  III  appear  to  arise  from 
the  discal  cell ;  but  this  is  because  two  of  the  branches 
coalesce  to  the  margin  of  the  wing.  In  such  butterflies  vein 
III  appears  to  be  only  four-branched. 

This  superfamily  includes  two  families — the  Giant  Skip- 
pers, Megathymida,  and  the  Common  Skippers,  Hesperiidce. 
These  can  be  distinguished  as  follows: — 

A.  Head  of  moderate  size  ;  club  of  antenna  large,  neither  drawn  out 
at  the  tip  nor  recurved.  Large  skippers,  with  wing  expanse  of 
two  inches  or  more.  p.  365 MEGATHYMID^E. 

AA.  Head  very  large ;  club  of  antenna  usually  drawn  out  at  the 
tip,  and  with  a  distinct  recurved  apical  crook.  In  a  few  forms 
the  crook  of  the  antennae  is  wanting;  such  forms  can  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Megathymidae  by  their  smaller  size,  the  wing 
expanse  being  less  than  one  and  one  fourth  inches,  p.  368. 

HESPERIID^G. 

Family  MEGATHYMID^:  (Meg-a-thym'i-dae). 
The  Giant  Skippers. 

This  family  includes  a  small  number  of  large  skippers, 
which  are  found  in  the  South  and  far  West.  In  the 
adult  insect  the  head  is  of  moderate  size,  the  width,  includ- 
ing the  eyes,  being  much  less  than  that  of  the  metathorax. 
The  club  of  the  antennae  is  large  ;  and,  although  the  tip  is 
turned  slightly  to  one  side,  it  is  neither  drawn  out  to  a 
point  nor  recurved.  The  body  is  very  robust,  even  more 
so  than  in  the  Hesperiidae.  These  insects  fly  in  the  day- 
time and  with  a  rapid,  darting  flight.  When  at  rest  they 
fold  their  wings  in  a  vertical  position. 

In  the  more  general  features  of  their  venation  the  wings 


366 


THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


closely  resemble  those  of  the  Hesperiidae.  But  the  Giant 
Skippers  exhibit  a  very  peculiar  specialization  of  wing  struc- 
ture in  the  male  sex.  Here  the  two  branches  of  vein  VII  of 
the  fore  wings  separate  from  each  other  and  from  the  cross- 
vein  connecting  them  with  vein  V,,  near  the  base  of  the 
wing  (Fig.  446).  In  this  sex  this  cross-vein,  the  branches  of 


FIG.  447.— Wings  of  Megathymus 
*      co/agui,  female. 


FIG.  446  —Wings  of  Megatkymus  yucca,  male. 

vein  VII,  and  vein  IX  are  all  very  stout.  The  strengthening 
of  these  veins  is  evidently  a  specialization  that  increases  the 
power  of  flight  of  this  sex.  For  these  stout  veins  must  aid 
in  depressing  the  hind  wings  during  the  downward  stroke  of 
the  wings,  as  the  hind  wing  is  overlapped  by  that  part  of  the 
fore  wing  traversed  by  these  veins.  The  separation  of  the 
branches  of  vein  VII  from  each  other  and  from  the  cross- 
vein,  so  near  the  base  of  the  wing,  is  directly  correlated 
with  the  strengthening  of  these  veins.  In  the  course  of 
the  perfecting  of  the  powers  of  flight  in  the  male  these 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


367 


veins  have  split  apart,  so  that  they  overlie  the  hind  wings 

to  a  greater  extent  than  they  do  in  the  female  (Fig.  447), 

which  probably  represents  a  more  primitive  condition.     It 

is  a  common  occurrence  for  the  wings  of  the  male  to  be  more 

highly  specialized  than  those  of  the  female,  for,  in  the  seeking 

of   mates,  the  males 

fly    more     than     do 

the  females.     But  it 

is  unusual  for  veins  to 

coalesce  to  a  smaller 

extent  in  specialized 

forms  than   in  those 

more        generalized. 

In   other  words,  the 

ordinary    course    of 

specialization    is    for  FlG>  **>-*'#"**""«  <ofagui. 

veins  to  grow  together  instead  of  to  split  apart. 

This  family  is  represented  in  the  United  States  by  a 
single  genus,  of  which  only  three  species  are  known.  The 
female  of  one  of  these,  Megathymus  cofaqui  (Meg-a-thy'mus 
cof-a-qui'),  is  represented  by  Figure  448.  The  male  differs 
in  the  smaller  size  of  the  spots  on  the  fore  wing,  in  lacking 
the  band  of  spots  on  the  hind  wing,  and  in  having  the  upper 
surface  of  the  hind  wing  nearly  covered  with  long  fine  black 
hairs,  which  stand  nearly  erect.  This  species  has  been  found 
in  Florida  and  Colorado. 

A  much  better  known  species  is  the  Yucca-borer,  Mega- 
thymus yucca  (M.  yuc'cae).  The  female  of  this  species  differs 
from  that  of  the  preceding  in  having  much  darker  wings, 
all  of  the  spots  being  smaller,  and  in  having  only  one  or 
two  white  spots  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  hind  wings. 
The  male  lacks  the  erect  hairs  on  the  hind  wings.  The 
larva  bores  in  the  stem  and  root  of  the  Yucca  or  Spanish 
Bayonet.  It  differs  greatly  in  appearance  from  the  larvae  of 
the  Hesperiidie,  having  a  small  head.  This  species  is  widely 
distributed  through  the  southern  part  of  our  country. 


368 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  third  species,  Megathymus  neumoegeni  (M.  neu-moe- 
gen'i),  occurs  in  Arizona. 

Family  HESPERIID.E  (Hes-pe-ri'i-dae). 
The  Common  Skippers. 

The  family   Hesperiidse   includes  all  skippers  found  in 

the  United  States  except 
the  three  species  de- 
\v,  scribed  above  as  the 
Giant  Skippers.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  differences 
indicated  in  the  table 
(p.  365),  it  may  be  said 
that  the  males  in  the 
Hesperiidae  lack  the  pecu- 
liar thickening  and  split- 
ting apart  of  the  branches 
of  vein  VII  of  the  fore 
wings  characteristic  of 
the  Giant  Skippers.  But 
there  exists  instead  in  the 
males  of  nearly  all  spe- 
cies peculiar  scent-organs, 
which  are  described  later. 
Figure  449  represents  the 
venation  of  a  male  mem- 
ber of  this  family. 

larvae     of     the 


FIG.  449—  Wings  of  Efargyreu*  tityrut. 

Common  Skippers  pre- 
sent a  very  characteristic 
appearance,  having  large 
heads  and  strongly  con-1 
stricted  necks  (Fig.  450). 
They  usually  live  con- 
cealed  in  a  folded  leaf  or  in  a  nest  made  of  several  leaves 


^'rus'  larva- 


LEPIDOP  TERA .  369 

fastened  together.  The  pupae  are  rounded,  not  angular, 
resembling  those  of  moths  more  than  those  of  butterflies. 
The  pupa  state  is  passed  in  a  slight  cocoon,  which  is  gen- 
erally composed  of  leaves  fastened  together  with  silk,  and 
thinly  lined  with  the  same  substance. 

The  family  Hesperiidae  includes  three  subfamilies ;  but 
only  two  of  them  are  represented  in  this  country,  the  third 
being  confined  to  South  and  Central  America.  Our  forms 
can  be  separated  as  follows  : — 

A.  Vein  Va  of  the  fore  wings  arising  nearer  to  vein  Vi  than  to  vein 

Vs.    p.  369 HESPERIIN.*. 

AA.  Vein  Va  of  the  fore  wings  arising  midway  between  veins  V,  and 

V3  or  nearer  to  vein  V3  than  to  vein  Vi. 
B.  Vein  Va  of  the  fore  wings  arising  nearly  midway  between  veins 

V,  and  V3. 

C.  Discal  cell  of  fore  wings  more  than  two  thirds  as  long  as  the 
costa.     Males  usually  with  costal  fold  in  fore  wings,    p.  369. 

HESPERIIN^. 

CC.  Discal  cell  of  fore  wings  less  than  two  thirds  as  long  as  the 
costa.     Males  usually  with   a  discal   patch  on   fore  wings. 

p.  372 PAMPHILIN.E. 

BB.  Vein  V-,  of  the  fore  wings  arising  much  nearer  to  vein  V.  than 
to  veinV,.    p.  372 

Subfamily  HESPERIIN^E  (Hes-pe-ri-i'nae). 

Skippers  ivith  a  Costal  Fold. 

This    subfamily   includes   the    larger   of   the    Common 
Skippers,  as  well  as  some  that  are  of  moderate  size.     Most 
of  the  species  are  dark  brown,  marked  with  white  or  trans- 
lucent, angular  spots.     The  antennae  usually  have  a  long 
club,  which  is  bent  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  tip  (Fig.  45  0-     But  the 
most    distinctive    feature    of  the  sub- 
family is  exhibited  by  the  males  alone, 
and    is   lacking   in    some   species.     It 
consists  of  a  fold  in  the  fore  wing  near  *«>•«<- 
the  costal  margin,  which  forms  a  long  slit-like  pocket,  cor 


usually  have  a  long 

w 


370  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

taining  a  sort  of  silky  down.  This  is  supposed  to  be  a 
scent-organ.  When  this  pocket  is  tightly  closed  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  see  it. 

Nearly  seventy  species  belonging  to  this  subfamily  have 
been  found  in  America  north  of  Mexico.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  more  common  of  these : — 

The  Silver-spotted  Skipper,  Epargyreus  tityrus  ( Ep-ar- 
gy're-us  tit'y-rus).  —  This  skipper  is  represented  on  our 
colored  plate  (Plate  I,  Fig.  4).  It  is  dark  chocolate-brown, 
with  a  row  of  yellowish  spots  extending  across  the  fore 
wing  and  with  a  large  silvery-white  spot  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  hind  wing.  It  is  found  in  nearly  the  whole  United 
States,  from  Massachusetts  to  California,  except  in  the 
extreme  Northeast  and  Northwest.  The  larva  (Fig.  450) 
feeds  upon  various 'papilionaceous  plants.  We  have  found 
it  common  on  locust.  It  makes  a  nest,  within  which  it  re- 
mains concealed,  by  fastening  together,  with  silk,  the  leaf- 
lets of  a  compound  leaf  (Fig.  452). 


FlG.  452.—  Nest  of  larva  of  Epargyreus  tityrus. 

The  Long-tailed  Skipper,  Etidamus  proteus  (Eu'da-mus 
pro'te-us).— This  Skipper  by  the  shape  of  its  wings  reminds 
one  of  a  swallow-tail  butterfly,  the  hind  wings  being  furnished 
with  long  tails.  It  expands  about  one  and  three  fourths 
inches;  and  the  greatest  length  of  the  hind  wings  is  about 
one  and  one  fourth  inches.  The  wings  are  very  dark  choc- 
olate-brown ;  the  front  wings  contain  several  silvery-white 
spots ;  and  the  body  and  base  of  the  wings  bear  metallic- 


LEPIDOPTERA.  371 

green  hairs.  The  larvae  feed  upon  both  Leguminosae  and 
Cruciferae.  In  the  South  it  is  sometimes  a  pest  in  gardens, 
cutting  and  rolling  the  leaves  of  beans,  turnips,  and  cabbage, 
and  feeding  within  the  rolls  thus  formed.  It  is  found  on 
the  Atlantic  border  from  New  York  southward  into  Mexico. 

There  are  two  common  skippers  which  are  nearly  as 
large  as  the  two  described  above,  but  which  have  neither 
the  yellow  band  of  the  first  nor  the  long  tails  of  the  second  ; 
neither  do  they  have  the  brown  spots  characteristic  of  the 
following  genus.  These  two  skippers  belong  to  the  genus 
Thorybes.  The  wings  are  of  an  even  dark  brown ;  the  fore 
wings  are  flecked  with  small  or  very  small  irregular  white 
spots,  and  the  hind  wings  are  crossed  beneath  by  two  rather 
narrow,  parallel,  inconspicuous  darker  bands.  These  skippers 
are  distinguished  as  follows  : — 

The  Northern  Cloudy-wing,  Thorybes pylades  (Thor'y-bes 
pyl'a-des). — In  this  species  the  white  spots  on  the  fore  wing 
are  usually  mere  points,  although  their  number  and  size 
vary.  The  species  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  larva  commonly  feeds  on  clover. 

The  Southern  Cloudy-wing,  Thorybes  bathyllus  (T. 
ba-thyl'lus).— In  this  species  the  white  spots  are  larger 
than  in  the  preceding,  almost  forming  a  continuous  band. 
This  skipper  is  widely  distributed  over  the  eastern  United 
States,  except  the  more  northern  portions. 

To  the  genus  Thanaos  belong  a  large  number  of  species 
which  on  account  of  their  dark  colors  have  been  named 
Dusky-wings.  These  species  resemble  each  other  so  closely 
in  markings  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  separate  them  with- 
out longer  descriptions  than  we  can 
give  here.  The  one  following  will 
serve  as  an  example. 

Martial's      Dusky-wing,      Thanaos 
martialis     (Than'a-os    mar-ti-a'lis). — 
The    wings   are  grayish  brown  with  FIG.  453.- T*« **«  ***&•*. 
many  dark  brown  spots  evenly  distributed  and  with  several 


372  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

minute  white  ones  on  the  outer  half  of  the  fore  wings 
(Fig.  453).  This  skipper  is  found  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Among  the  smaller  members  of  this  subfamily  are  the 
skippers  of  the  genus  Pliolisora.  The  most  widely  dis- 
tributed species  of  this  genus  is  the  Sooty-wing,  Pholisora 
catnllus  (Phol-i-so'ra  ca-tul'lus).  The  expanse  of  the  wings 
is  a  little  more  than  one  inch.  The  wings  are  nearly  black, 
marked  with  minute  white  spots,  which  vary  in  size  and 
number.  This  species  is  found  throughout  the  United 
States  except  along  the  extreme  northern  border. 

The  genus  Hesperia  includes  a  considerable  number  of 
small  skippers,  which  are  easily  recognized  by  their  check- 
ered markings  of  white  upon  a  dark  brown  ground.  Small 
white  spots  on  the  wings  are  common  in  this  subfamily, 
but  in  this  genus  the  white  spots  are  unusually  large,  so 
large  in  some  cases  that  they  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the 
wing.  One  of  the  more  common  species  is  the  Variegated 
Tessellate,  Hesperia  montivaga  (Hes-pe'ri-a  mon-tiv'a-ga). 
This  is  distributed  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  is 
the  only  one  common  in  the  Eastern  United  States.  In 
this  species  more  than  one  half  of  the  outer  two  thirds  of 
both  fore  and  hind  wings  is  white. 

Subfamily  PAMPHILIN.E  (Pam-phi-li'nse). 
Skippers  with  a  Discal  Patch. 

This   subfamily  includes   the    greater   number    of    our 

smaller  skippers.     Some  of  the  species,  however,  surpass  in 

^^  -v        r     ^^  size  many  of  the  Hesperiinae.     To  the 

BJ^^W^^HB  Pamphilinae  belong  all  of  our  common 

^f  tawny  skippers,  as  well  as  some  black 

^R  or  dark  brown  species.      The  antennae 

^^F  w  ^^r  usually  have  a  stout  club,  with  a  short, 

FIG.  w.-Limocho,es  pon     recurve(^    t{P  '    sometimes    this    tip    is 

Mac,  male.  wanting.     In  the  majority  of  our  species 

the  males  can  be  recognized  at  a  glance  by  a  conspicuous 


LEPIDOPTERA.  373 

discal  patch,  which  usually  appears  to  the  naked  eye  like 
a  scorched,  oblique  streak  near  the  center  of  each  fore 
wing  (Fig.  454).  This  patch  is  a  complicated  organ,  com- 
posed of  tubular  scales  that  are  outlets  of  scent-glands 
and  other  scales  of  various  shapes.  The  females  can  be 
recognized  by  their  resemblance  in  other  respects  to  the 
males.  In  some  species  the  discal  patch  is  wanting  in  the 
males  also. 

This  subfamily  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  one  to  study. 
More  than  one  hundred  species  have  been  described  from 
America  north  of  Mexico ;  and  in  many  cases  the  differences 
between  allied  species  are  not  well  marked.  The  following 
two  are  named  merely  as  examples,  The  first  is  easily 
recognized.  But  it  is  not  worth  while  for  the  beginning 
student  to  attempt  to  distinguish  other  members  of  this 
subfamily. 

The  Least  Skipper,  Ancyloxipha  numitor  (An-cy-lox'i-pha 
nu'mi-tor). — This  skipper  is  the  smallest  of  our  common 
species,  and  is  also  remarkable  for  lacking  the  recurved 
hook  at  the  tip  of  the  antennae.  The  wings  are  tawny, 
broadly  margined  with  dark  brown.  In  some  specimens 
the  fore  wings  are  almost  entirely  brown.  The  larger  in- 
dividuals expand  about  one  inch.  The  larva  feeds  upon 
grass  in  damp  places. 

The  Black  Dash,  Limochores  pontiac  (Li-moch'o-res 
pon'ti-ac).— The  male  of  this  species  is  represented  by 
Figure  454.  It  is  blackish  brown,  with  considerable  yellow 
on  the  basal  half  of  the  fore  wings.  The  discal  patch  is 
velvety  black.  This  species  is  distributed  from  Massachu- 
setts to  Nebraska. 

Superfamily  PAPILIONINA  (Pa-pil-i-o-ni'na). 

The  Butterflies. 

The  butterflies  differ  from  moths  in  that  they  have 
clubbed  antennae.,  fly  only  in  the  daytime,  and  hold  the 


374 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


wings  erect  above  the  back  when  at  rest.     There  are  some 

moths  that  have 
clubbed  antennae,and 
others  that  fly  by  day 
but  no  moth  presents 
all  three  of  the  charac- 
teristics given  above. 
It  is  more  difficult 
to  distinguish  the  but- 
terflies from  the  skip- 
pers ;  yet  this  can  be 
easily  done.  In  but- 
terflies the  club  of 
the  antenna  is  bluntly 
rounded  at  the  tip 
instead  of  being  fur- 
nished with  a  re- 
curved point  as  in 
most  skippers ;  the 
abdomen  is  very  slen- 
der ;  and  some  of  the 
branches  of  radius  of 
the  fore  wings  co- 
alesce beyond  the 
There  are  butterflies  in 


vn. 


VII 


FIG.  455.— Wings  of  Basilarchia  astyanax. 

apex  of  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  455). 

which  all  of  the  branches  of  radius  present  arise  from  the 

discal  cell ;    but  this   is  due  to  the  fact    that  two  of   the 

branches  coalesce  to  the  edge  of  the  wing,  as  is  shown  by 

the  fact  that  in  these  butterflies  radius  has  less  than  five 

branches. 

This  superfamily  includes  four  families,   which  can  be 
separated  as  follows : — 

A.  Cubitus  of  the  fore  wings  apparently  four-branched  (Fig.  456). 

P-  375 PAPILIONIDJE. 

A  A.     Cubitus  of  the  fore  wings  apparently  three-branched  (Fig.  455). 
B.  With  six  well-developed  legs,  although  in  some  species  the  fore 


LEPIDOPTEKA.  375 

legs  of  the  male  are  a  little  shorter,  and  the  tarsi  of  these  lack 
one  or  both  claws  ;  radius  of  the  fore  wings,  with  rare  exceptions, 
only  three-  or  four-branched.  To  determine  the  number  of 
branches  of  radius,  count  the  two  cubital  and  the  three  medial 
branches  first ;  the  branches  left  between  veins  Vi  and  II  belong 
to  radius. 

C.  Vein  V,  of  the  fore  wings  arising  at  or  near  the  apex  of  the 

'       discal  cell  (Fig.  465)  except  in  Feniseca  tarquinius,  in  which  the 

wings  are  dark  brown,  with  a  large  fulvous  spot  on  each.    p. 

388 LYCJENID^. 

CC.  The  first  branch  of  media  of  the  fore  wings  united  with 
the  last  branch  of  radius  for  a  considerable  distance  beyond 
the  apex  of  the  discal  cell  (Fig.  460).  Ground  color  of  wings 

white,  yellow,  or  orange,     p.  381 PIERID^E. 

BB.  With  only  four  well-developed  legs,  the  fore  legs  being  un- 
used, much  shorter  than  the  others,  and  folded  on  the  breast  like 
a  tippet  (except  in  the  female  of  Hypatus).  Radius  of  fore  wings 
five-branched  (Fig.  467),  p.  395 NYMPHALIDA:. 

Family  PAPILIONID^:  (Pa-pil-i-on'i-dae). 
The  Swallow-tails  and  the  Parnassians. 

This  family  includes  the  swallow-tail  butterflies,  which 
are  common  throughout  our  country,  and  the  Parnassians, 
which  are  found  only  on  high  mountains  or  far  north.  These 
insects  are  distinguished  from  all  other  butterflies  by  the 
fact  that  vein  V,  of  the  fore  wings  appears  to  be  a  branch 
of  cubitus,  making  this  vein  appear  four-branched  (Fig.  456), 
and  also  by  the  fact  that  the  anal  area  of  the  hind  wings  is 
more  reduced  than  the  anal  area  of  the  fore  wings,  the 
former  containing  only  a  single  anal  vein,  the  latter  two  or 
three. 

The  caterpillars  are  never  furnished  with  spines,  but  are 
either  naked  or  clothed  with  a  few  fine  hairs.  In  a  single 
species  in  our  fauna  (Laertias  philenor)  the  body  of  the 
larva  bears  fleshy  filaments. 

A  striking  peculiarity  of  the  larvae  of  this  family  is  the 
presence  of  a  pair  of  bright-colored  fleshy  "  horns,"  which 
can  be  projected  from  a  slit  in  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  pro- 


376 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


thorax.    These  have  been  termed  osmateria  (os-ma-te'ria), 

and  are  supposed  to  be 
organs  of  defence ;  for 
they  exhale  when  pushed 
mj  out  an  odor  which  in  some 
species  is  exceedingly  dis- 
agreeable. 

The  chrysalids  are 
thickened  in  the  middle 
and  taper  considerably  at 
each  end  ;  they  are  more 
or  less  angulated,  and  have 
certain  parts  excessively 
produced  ;  they  are  sus- 
pended by  the  tail  and  by 
a  loose  girth  around  the 
middle. 

This  family  includes 
two  well-marked  subfami- 
lies, which  are  distin- 
guished as  follows  : — 

.  Hind  wings  with  a  tail- 
like  prolongation  ;  ground- 
color of  wings  black  ;  radius 
of  fore  wings  five-branched  ;  the  base  of  vein  VIII  of  fore  wings 
preserved  as  a  spur-like  branch  of  vein  VII  (Fig.  456).  p.  376 

PA  PI  LI  ON  I  N^E. 

AA.  Hind  wings  without  tail-like  prolongation ;  ground  color  of 
wings  white;  radius  of  fore  wings  four-branched  ;  vein  VIII  of  fore 
wings  wanting,  p.  380 PARNASSIIN^E 

Subfamily  PAPILIONIN^E  (Pa-pil-i-o-ni'nse). 
The  Swallow-tails. 

These  magnificent  butterflies  are  easily  recognized  by 
their  large  size  and  the  tail-like  prolongations  of  the  hind 
wings.  The  ground  color  of  the  wings  is  black,  which  is 


FIG.  456.— Wings  cf  Papilla  polyxenes. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


377 


usually  marked  with  yellow,  and  often  with  metallic  blue  or 
green. 

There  are  about  twenty-five  species  of  swallow-tails  in 
America  north  of  Mexico.  The  following  well-known  spe- 
cies will  serve  as  illustrations. 

The  Black  Swallow-tail,  Papilio  polyxenes  (Pa-pil'i-o  po- 
lyx'e-nes). — The  larva  of  this  swallow-tail  (Fig.  457)  is  well 

known      to       most 
country     children. 
It    is    the     green 
worm,  ringed   with 
black    and  spotted 
with     yellow,    that 
eats   the   leaves    of 
caraway      in     the 
back  yards  of  coun- 
try houses.    It  feeds 
also  on  parsnip  and 
other    umbelliferous     plants.     These 
caterpillars   always   fascinated    us   in 
our  childhood  ;  we  have  spent  many 
idle  moments  in   poking  them    with 
straws  to  see  them  rear  upward  and 
project  their  yellow  horns,  which  gave 
off  a  sickening  odor.     When  ready  to 
transform  the  caterpillar  crawls  away 
to  a  fence  or  the   side  of  the  house 
and  changes  to  an  angular  pupa,  sus- 
pended  by  the   tail   and    by  a   little 
silken  girth  around  the  middle. 

In  the  adult  the  wings  are  black, 
crossed  with  two  rows  of  yellow  spots, 
and  with  marginal  lunules  of  the  same 
color.  The  two  rows  of  spots  are 

much  more'distinct  in  the  male  than  in  the  female  the  in- 
ner row  on  the  hind  wing  forming  a  continuous  band  crossed 


FIG.  457.— Papilio  folyxenes, 
larva. 


378  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

with  black  lines  on  the  veins.  Between  the  two  rows  of 
spots  on  the  hind  wings  there  are  many  blue  scales ;  these  are 
more  abundant  in  the  female.  Near  the  anal  angle  of  the 
hind  wing  there  is  an  orange  spot  with  a  black  center.  On 
the  lower  surface  of  the  wings  the  yellow  markings  become 
mostly  orange  and  are  heavier. 

This  species  is  found  throughout  the  United  States  and 
in  the  southern  parts  of  Canada. 

The  Tiger  Swallow-tail,  Jasoniades  g/aucus(JaiS-o-m'a.-des 
glau'cus). — The  larva  of  this  butterfly  (Fig.  458)  is  even  more 
striking  in  appearance  than  that  of  the 
preceding  species.  When  full  grown  it  is 
dark  green,  and  bears  on  each  side  of  the 
third  thoracic  segment  a  large  greenish- 
yellow  spot,  edged  with  black,  and  enclos- 
ing a  small  purple  spot  bordered  with 
black.  This  caterpillar  has  the  curious 
habit  of  weaving  upon  a  leaf  a  carpet  of 
silk,  upon  which  it  rests  when  not  feed- 
ing ;  when  nearly  full  grown,  instead  of 
spinning  a  simple  carpet  as  before,  it 
stretches  a  web  across  the  hollow  of  a 
leaf  and  thus  makes  a  spring  bed  upon 
which  it  sleeps  (Fig.  458). 

In  the  adult  state  two  distinct  forms  of 
this  insect  occur.  These  differ  so  greatly 
in  appearance  that  they  were  long  con- 
sidered distinct  species.  They  may  be 

FIG.  ta.-Jwniadesglau-     ..... 

va  upon  its  bed.       distinguished  aS    follows  : 

(i)  The  Turnus  ¥orm,Jasoniades  glaucus  turnus. — The 
wings  are  bright  straw-yellow  above,  and  pale,  faded  straw- 
yellow  beneath,  with  a  very  broad  black  outer  margin,  in 
which  there  is  a  row  of  yellow  spots.  On  the  fore  wings 
there  are  four  black  bars,  extending  back  from  the  costa  ;  the 
inner  one  of  these  crosses  the  hind  wings  also.  This  form 


LEPIDOPTERA.  379 

is  represented  by  both  sexes,  and  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

(2)  The  Glaucus  Form,  Jasoniades  glaucus  glaucus. — In 
this  form  the  disk  of  the  wings  is  entirely  black,  but  the 
black  bands  of  the  Turnus  form  are  faintly  indicated,  espe- 
cially on  the  lower  surface,  by  a  darker  shade.  The  mar- 
ginal row  of  yellow  spots  is  present,  and  also  the  orange 
spots  and  blue  scales  of  the  hind  wings.  This  form  is  rep- 
resented only  by  the  female  sex,  and  occurs  only  in  the 
more  southern  part  of  the  range  of  the  species,  i.e.,  from 
Delaware  to  Montana  and  southward. 

The  Zebra  Swallow-tail,  Iphiclidcs  ajax  (Iph-i-cli'des 
a'jax).— This  butterfly  (Fig.  459)  differs  from  all  other  swal- 
low-tails found  in  the 
eastern  half  of  the 
United  States  in  hav- 
ing the  wings  crossed 
by  several  bands  of 
greenish  white.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting of  our  but- 
terflies, as  it  occurs 
under  three  distinct 
forms,  two  of  which 
were  considered  for  a 
long  time  distinct 
species.  Without  tak- 

.  ,  FIG    450. — ipkiclidts  ajax. 

ing  into  account  the 

more  minute  differences  these  forms  can  be  separated   as 

follows : — 

(1)  The    Early-spring   Form,   Iphiclides   ajax   marc  dins 
(mar-cel'lus).— This  is  the  form  figured  here.     It  expands 
from    two  and  six  tenths  inches  to  two  and  eight  tenths 
inches ;  and  the  tails  of  the  hind  wings  are  about  six  tenths 
inch  in  length  and  tipped  with  white. 

(2)  The    Late-spring   Form,   Iphiclides  ajax  telamonidcs 


380  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

(tel-a-mon'i-des). — This  form  is  a  little  larger  than  marcellus 
and  has  tails  nearly  one  third  longer  ;  these  tails  are  bordered 
with  white  on  each  side  of  the  distal  half  or  two  thirds  of 
their  length. 

(3)  The  Summer  Form,  Iphiclides  ajax  ajax. — The  sum- 
mer form  is  still  larger,  expanding  from  three  and  two  tenths 
inches  to  three  and  one  half  inches,  and  has  tails  nearly  two 
thirds  longer  than  the  early-spring  form. 

The  life-history  of  this  species  has  been  carefully  worked 
out  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Edwards.  He  has  shown  that  there  are 
several  generations  each  year,  and  that  the  winter  is  passed 
in  the  chrysalis  state.  But  the  early-spring  form  and  the 
late-spring  form  are  not  successive  broods ;  these  are  both 
composed  of  individuals  that  have  wintered  as  chrysalids, 
those  that  emerge  early  developing  into  marcellus,  and  those 
that  emerge  later  developing  into  telamonides.  All  of  the 
butterflies  produced  from  eggs  of  the  same  season,  and  there 
are  several  successive  broods,  are  of  the  summer  form,  ajax 
ajax. 

The  larva  feeds  upon  papaw  (Asimina).  This  insect  is 
found  throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States 
except  in  the  extreme  north. 

Subfamily  PARXASSIIN.E  (Par-nas-si-i'nae). 
The  Parnassians  (Par-nas1  si-ans). 

The  Parnassians  differ  from  the  Swallow-tails  in  lacking 
the  tail-like  prolongations  of  the  hind  wings  and  in  that  the 
ground-color  of  the  wings  is  white ;  but  resemble  them  in 
the  general  plan  of  the  venation  of  the  wings,  and  in  pos- 
sessing similar  scent-organs  (osmateria)  in  the  larval  state. 
The  wings  of  the  butterflies  are  usually  conspicuously  marked 
with  black  spots  and  shades,  and  with  red  spots.  Only  four 
species  have  been  found  in  North  America.  These  belong 
to  the  genus  Parnassius  (Par-nas'si-us).  They  are  found  only 
on  high  mountains  or  far  north. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  381 

Family  PiERID^E  (Pi-er'i-dae). 
The  Pierids  (Pi'e-rids). 

These  butterflies  are  usually  of  medium  size,  but  some  of 
them  are  small;  they  are  nearly  always  white,  yellow,  or 
orange,  and  are  usually  marked  with  black.  They  are  the 
most  abundant  of  all  our  butterflies,  being  common  every- 
where in  fields  and  roads.  Some  species  are  so  abundant  as 
to  be  serious  pests,  the  larvae  feeding  on  cultivated  plants. 

The  characteristic  features  of  the  venation  of  the  wings 
are  the  following  (Fig.  460):  Vein  V,  of  the  fore  wings  is 
more  closely  connected 
with  radius  than  with 
cubitus,  the  latter  appear- 
ing to  be  three-branched ; 
vein  V,  of  the  fore  wings 
coalesces  with  radius  for 
a  considerable  distance 
beyond  the  apex  of  the 
discal  cell ;  and  only  three 
or  four  of  the  branches 
of  radius  remain  distinct. 

In  this  family  the  fore 
legs  are  well  developed  in 
both  sexes,  there  being  no 
tendency  to  their  reduc- 
tion in  size,  as  in  the  two 
following  families. 

The  larvae  are  usual- 
ly slender  green  worms 

,       .        .          .   f        1  c.  F»G-  460.— Wings  of  t'omtfa  fret  edit*. 

clothed    with   short,   fine 

hairs;  the  well-known  Cabbage-worms  are  typical  illus- 
trations (Fig.  461).  The  chrysalids  are  supported  by  the 
tail  and  by  a  loose  girth  around  the  middle.  They  may  be 
distinguished  at  a  glance  by  the  presence  of  a  single  pointed 
projection  in  front  (Fig.  461). 


382 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Our  genera  of  this  family  can  be  separated  into  three 
groups,  which  seem  hardly  distinct  enough  to  be  ranked  as 


FIG.  461. — Pieris  rapce,  larvae  and  pupa. 

subfamilies.     These  are  the  Whites,  the  Yellows,  and  the 
Orange-tips. 

I.   The  Whites. — The   more  common   representatives  of 
this  group  are  the  well-known  Cabbage-butterflies.     They 
are  white  butterflies  more  or  less  marked  with  black.     Occa- 
sionally the  white  is  tinged  with  yellow  ;  and  sometimes  yel- 
low varieties  of  our  white 
species   occur.      About    a 
dozen     North      American 
species  of   this   group   are 
known. 

The  Cabbage-butterfly, 
Pieris  rapes  (Pi'e-ris  ra'pse). 
—The  wings  of  this  butter 
fly  are  dull  white  above, 
occasionally  tinged  with 
yellowish,  especially  in  the 
female ;  below,  the  apex  of  the  fore  wings  and  the  entire 


FIG.  462.— Pieris  rajxz. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  383 

surface  of  the  hind  wings  are  pale  lemon-yellow.  In  the 
female  there  are  two  spots  on  the  outer  part  of  the  fore 
wing  besides  the  black  tip,  in  the  male  only  one  (Fig. 
462).  There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  intensity  of 
the  black  markings,  and  in  the  extent  of  the  yellow  tinge  of 
the  wings. 

The  larva  of  this  species  (Fig.  461)  feeds'principally  on 
cabbage,  but  it  also  attacks  many  other  cruciferous  plants. 
Its  color  is  the  green  of  the  cabbage-leaf,  with  a  narrow, 
greenish,  lemon-yellow  dorsal  band,  and  a  narrow,  inter- 
rupted stigmatal  band  of  the  same  color.  The  body  is 
clothed  with  very  fine  short  hairs. 

Pieris  rapce  is  without  doubt  the  most  injurious  to  agri- 
culture of  all  our  species  of  butterflies.  It  is  an  introduced 
species,  but  has  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  this  coun- 
try. As  it  is  three-brooded  in  the  North  and  probably 
more  in  the  South,  it  is  present  nearly  the  entire  season,  so 
that  it  needs  to  be  fought  constantly.  Owing  to  the  im- 
practicability of  using  poison  upon  cabbage,  and  to  the  fact 
that  the  larva  bores  into  the  heart  of  the  cabbage  beyond 
the  reach  of  applications  to  the  plant,  it  is  an  exceedingly 
difficult  insect  to  combat.  Obviously  it  is  important  in 
fighting  this  insect  to  thoroughly  subdue  the  spring  and 
summer  broods,  so  that  the  bulk  of  the  fighting  can  be 
done  before  the  cabbage  begins  to  head.  For  this  purpose 
pyrethrum  and  kerosene  emulsion  have  been  found  most 
useful. 

The  Gray-veined  White,  Pieris  oleracea  (Pi'e-ris  ol-e-ra'- 
ce-a).— The  wings  are  white  above  and  below,  with  a  scarcely 
perceptible  tinge  of  greenish  yellow.  Sometimes  there  is  a 
dark  spot  on  the  fore  wing  between  veins  V,  and  VII, ,  but 
usually  the  wings  are  unspotted.  The  base  of  the  wings, 
however,  and  the  basal  half  of  the  costa  of  the  front  wings, 
are  powdered  more  or  less  with  dark  scales,  and  the  veins  of 
the  wings,  especially  on  the  lower  side,  are  grayish. 

This  species  occurs  throughout  Canada  and  in  the  more 


384  THE   STUDY -OF  INSECTS. 

northern  portions  of  the  United   States.     The  larva  feeds 
on  cabbage. 

The  Checkered  White,  Pontia  protodice  (Pon'ti-a  pro- 
tod'i-ce). — The  two  sexes  of  this  species  differ  greatly  in 
appearance,  the  female  being  much  more  darkly  marked 
than  the  male.  The  wings  are  white,  marked  above  with 
grayish  brown.  There  is  a  bar  of  this  color  at  the  end  of 
the  discal  cell ;  beyond  this  there  is  in  the  male  a  row  of 
three  more  or  less  distinct  spots,  and  in  the  female  an 
almost  continuous  band  of  spots.  Besides  these  there  is  in 
the  female  a  row  of  triangular  spots  on  the  outer  margin  of 
both  fore  and  hind  wings,  and  on  the  hind  wings  a  submar- 
ginal  zigzag  bar. 

The  larva  of  this  species  is  colored  with  alternating 
stripes  of  bright  golden  yellow  and  dark  greenish  purple, 
upon  which  are  numerous  black  spots.  It  feeds  upon  cab- 
bage and  other  cruciferous  plants,  and  occurs  in  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  United  States.  Both  this  and  the  preceding 
species  seem  to  become  greatly  lessened  in  numbers  by  the 
increase  of  the  imported  Pieris  rapes. 

II.  The  Orange-tips. — These,  like  the  butterflies  compris- 
ing the  preceding  group,  are  white,  marked  with  black. 
Their  most  characteristic  feature  is  the  presence  on  the 
lower  surface  of  the  hind  wings  of  a  greenish  network,  or  a 
marbled  green  mottling.  This  usually  shows  through  the 
wing  so  as  to  appear  as  a  dark  shade  when  the  wings  are 
seen  from  above  (Fig.  463).  Many  species  have  a  con- 
spicuous orange  spot  on  the  api- 
cal portion  of  the  front  wings. 
This  has  suggested  the  common 
name  Orange-tips  for  the  group. 
But  it  should  be  remembered 
that  some  species  lack  this 
mark,  and  that  in  some  others  it 
is  confined  to  the  males.  Nearly 

^.-iynchloe  olympia.  ' 

all  of  our  species  are  confined  to 
the  far  West.     The  two  following  occur  in  the  East. 


LEPIDOPTEKA.  385 

The  Falcate  Orange-tip,  A nthocharis  genutia  (An-thoch'- 
a-ris  ge-nu'ti-a). — In  this  species  the  apex  of  the  fore  wings 
is  hooked,  reminding  one  of  the  Hook-tip  Moths.  In  the 
males  there  is  a  large  apical  orange  patch.  This  butterfly 
is  found  throughout  the  southeastern  part  of  the  United 
States,  not  including  Florida.  It  occurs  as  far  north  as 
New  Haven,  Conn.  It  is  nowhere  abundant. 

Synchloe  olympia  (Syn'chlo-e  o-lym'pi-a). — In  this  species 
the  orange  patch  is  wanting  in  both  sexes.  There  is  a  con- 
spicuous black  bar  at  the  end  of  the  discal  cell  of  the  fore 
wings,  and  the  apical  portion  of  these  wings  is  gray,  includ- 
ing a  large  irregular  white  band  (Fig.  463). 

This  species  occurs  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

III.  The -Yellows. — The  Yellows  are  easily  recognized  by 
their  bright  yellow  colors,  although  in  some  species  whitish 
forms  occur.  They  abound  almost  everywhere  in  open 
fields,  and  are  common  about  wet  places  in  roads.  To  this 
group  belong  the  larger  number  of  our  Pierids. 

The  Clouded  Sulphur,  Eurymus  philodice  ( Eu'ry-m us  phi- 
lod'i-ce). — The  wings  above 
are  rather  pale  greenish  yellow, 
with  the  outer  borders  black- 
ish brown.  Figure  464  repre- 
sents the  male  ;  in  the  female 
the  border  on  the  fore  wings 
is  broader,  and  contains  a  sub- 
marginal  row  of  yellow  spots. 

The   discal   dot    of    the    fore          FIC.  ^.-/r^,—* //./A.,//, 
wings    is    black,  that    of    the 
hind  wings  is  orange.     The  under  surface  is  sulphur-yellow. 

This  species  is  dimorphic.     The  second  form  is  repre- 
sented only  by  the  female  sex,  and  differs  in  having  1 
ground-color  of  the  wings  white  instead  of  yellow. 

The  Clouded  Sulphur  occurs  from  the  mouth  of  the  , 
Lawrence  to  South  Carolina  and  westward  to  the 
Mountains.     Its  larva  feeds  upon  clover  and 
minosae. 


386  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  Orange  Sulphur,  Eurymus  eurytheme  (E.  eu- 
ryth'e-me). — This  species  closely  resembles  philodice  in- 
size,  shape,  and  markings.  The  typical  form  differs  from 
philodice  in  being  of  an  orange  color  above  instead  of  a 
yellow. 

The  Orange  Sulphur  is  a  Western  species,  occurring  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley  and  west  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  polymorphic  of  all  butterflies  ;  the  forms 
differ  so  much  in  appearance  that  four  or  five  of  them  have 
been  described  as  distinct  species.  The  larva  feeds  on 
clover. 

The  Dog's-head,  Zerene  casonia  (Ze-re'ne  cae-so'ni-a.) — 
The  wings  are  lemon-yellow  above,  bordered  on  the  outer 
margin  with  black.  On  the  hind  wings  the  border  is  nar 
row,  but  on  the  fore  wings  it  is  broad.  The  outline  of  the 
yellow  of  the  fore  wings  suggests  a  head  of  a  dog  or  of  a 
duck,  a  prominent  black  spot  on  the  discal  vein  serving  as 
the  eye.  This  is  an  abundant  species  in  the  Southeastern 
and  Southwestern  States,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific.  The  larva  feeds  on  clover. 

The  Black-bordered  Yellow,  Xanthidia  nicippe  (Xan- 
thid'i-a  ni-cip'pe). — The  wings  above  are  bright  orange, 
marked  with  blackish  brown  as  follows  :  on  the  fore  wings  a 
narrow  bar  at  the  apex  of  the  discal  cell,  the  apical  portion 
of  the  wings,  and  the  outer  margin  ;  on  the  hind  wings,  the 
outer  margin.  In  the  female  the  outer  marginal  band  is  in- 
terrupted at  the  anal  angle  of  each  wing,  and  on  the  hind 
wings  it  may  be  reduced  to  an  apical  patch.  The  expanse 
of  wings  is  from  one  and  six  tenths  inches  to  one  and  nine 
tenths  inches. 

The  species  occurs  from  Southern  New  England  to 
Florida  and  west  to  Lower  California.  The  larva  feeds  on 
several  species  of  Cassia. 

The  Little  Sulphur,  Eurema  lisa  (Eu-re'ma  li'sa). — 
Although  this  species  is  larger  than  the  following  one  it 
is  considerably  below  the  average  size  of  our  yellows,  the 


LEP1DOPTEKA.  387 

larger  specimens  expanding  less  than  one  inch  and  a  half. 
The  wings  are  canary-yellow  above,  with  the  apex  of  the 
fore  wing  and  the  outer  margin  of  both  fore  and  hind  wings 
blackish  brown.  The  border  of  the  hind  wing  is  narrow  and 
sometimes  wanting. 

The  distribution  of  this  species  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
preceding.  The  larva  feeds  on  Cassia. 

The  Dainty  Sulphur,  Nathalis  iole  (Na-tha'lis  i'o-le). — 
This  little  butterfly  can  be  distinguished  from  all  others  de- 
scribed here  by  its  small  size,  as  it  expands  only  from  less 
than  one  inch  to  one  and  one  fifth  inches.  It  is  of  a  pale 
canary-yellow  color,  with  dark  brown  markings.  There  is  a 
large  apical  patch  on  the  fore  wings,  and  a  broad  band  par- 
allel with  the  inner  margin  ;  on  the  hind  wings  there  is  a 
stripe  on  the  basal  two  thirds  of  the  costa,  and  spots  on  the 
ends  of  the  veins ;  these  are  more  or  less  connected  on  the 
margin  of  the  wing,  especially  in  the  female.' 

This  species  also  is  found  from  Southern  New  England 
to  Florida  and  west  to  Lower  California.  It,  too,  feeds  on 
Cassia. 

The  Cloudless  Sulphur,  Callidryas  cubule  (Cal-lid'ry-as 
eu-bu'le). — This  large  butterfly  differs  greatly  in  appearance 
from  those  described  above.  It  expands  two  and  one  half 
inches.  The  wings  above  are  of  uniform  bright  canary- 
yellow.  In  the  male  they  are  without  spots,  except  fre- 
quently an  inconspicuous  brown  dot  at  the  tip  of  each  vein, 
and  a  lilac-brown  edging  of  the  costal  border.  In«the 
female  there  is  a  discal  dot  on  the  fore  wing  and  a  mar- 
ginal  row  of  brown  spots  at  the  ends  of  the  veins. 

This  is  a  southern  species  which  occasionally  extends  as 
far  north  on  the  coast  as  New  York  City,  and  in  the  Missis- 
sippi  Valley  as  far  as  Southern  Wisconsin.  The  larva  feeds 
on  Cassia. 


388 


THE  STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 


Family  LYC/ENID^E  (Ly-caen'i-dae). 
The  Gossamer-winged  Butterflies. 

The  family  Lycaenidae  includes  butterflies  which  are  of 
small  size  and  delicate  structure.  In  size  they  resemble  the 
smaller  Hesperiidae  ;  but  they  can  be  distinguished  at  a 
glance  from  the  skippers,  as  they  present  an  entirely  differ- 
ent appearance.  The  body  is  slender,  the  wings  delicate 
and  often  brightly  colored,  and  the  club  of  the  antenna 
straight.  The  antennae  are  nearly  always  ringed  with  white, 
and  a  conspicuous  rim  of  white  scales  encircles  the  eyes. 
An  easily-observed  combination  of  characters  by  which 

the  members  of  this  fam- 
ily can  be  distinguished 
is  the  absence  of  one  or 
two  of  the  branches  of 
radius  of  the  fore  wings, 
this  vein  being  only 
three-  or  four-branched, 
and  the  origin  of  vein  V, 
of  the  fore  wings  at 
or  near  the  apex  of  the 
discal  cell  (Fig.  465). 
In  all  other  butterflies 
occurring  in  our  fauna 
in  which  radius  is  only 
three-  or  four-branched, 
vein  V,  of  the  fore  wings 
coalesces  with  radius  for 
a  considerable  distance 
beyond  the  apex  of  the 
discal  cell.  An  excep- 

465.-wings  of  chrysophanus  thoe.  tion  to  the  characters  of 
the  Lycaenidae  is  presented  by  Feniseca,  as  indicated  in 
the  table  of  families,  p.  375. 

A  remarkable  characteristic  of  this  family  is  that  while  in 


Vllt 


PLATE  VI. 


fa* 


m 


i  m 


LEPIDOPTERA.  389 

the  female  the  front  legs  are  like  the  other  legs,  in  the  male 
they  are  shorter,  without  tarsal  claws,  and  with  the  tarsi 
more  or  less  aborted.  This  reduction  of  the  fore  legs  is 
carried  even  farther  in  the  next  family,  where  it  extends  to 
both  sexes,  and  the  fore  legs  are  unused. 

The  caterpillars  of  the  Lycaenidae  present  a  very  unusual 
form,  being  more  or  less  slug-like,  reminding  one  of  the 
larvae  of  the  Eucleidae.  The  body  is  short  and  broad  ; 
the  legs  and  prolegs  are  short  and  small,  allowing  the  body 
to  be  closely  pressed  to  the  object  upon  which  the  insect  is 
moving  —  in  fact  some  of  the  species  glide  rather  than  creep  ; 
and  the  head  is  small,  and  can  be  retracted  more  or  less 
within  the  prothorax.  The  body  is  armed  with  no  conspic- 
uous appendages  ;  but  some  of  the  species  are  remarkable 
for  having  honey-tubes  which  can  be  pushed  out  from  the 
seventh  and  eighth  abdominal  segments,  and  through  which 
honey-dew  is  excreted  for  the  use  of  ants.  Certain  other 
species  are  remarkable  in  being  carnivorous  ;  one  American 
species  feeds  exclusively  upon  plant-lice. 

The  chrysalids  are  short,  broad,  ovate,  and  without  angu- 
lations.  They  are  attached  by  the  caudal  extremity,  and  by 
a  loop  passing  over  the  body  near  its  middle.  The  ventral 
aspect  of  the  body  is  straight  and  often  closely  pressed  to 
the  object  to  which  the  chrysalis  is  attached. 

The  Lycaenidse  include  two  subfamilies;  these  can  be 
be  separated  as  follows  :  — 

A.  Vein  II  of  the  hind  wings  without  a  branch  near  the  base  of  the 
wing  (Fig.  465)  ....................  .........  LYCJSNINAS. 

A  A.  Vein  II  of  the  hind  wings  giving  off  a  spur  (the  tip  of  vein  I) 
near  the  base  of  the  wing.  p.  394  ...................  LEMONIIN^. 


Subfamily  LYC^NIN^:  (Ly-cae-ni'nse). 
The  Common  Gossamer-winged  Butterflies. 
This  subfamily  includes  all  of  our  common  members  of 
the  Lycamidre  ;  it  is  composed  of  three  well-marked  groups 


390  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS, 

of  gene/a,  which  have  been  distinguished  as  the  Coppers, 
the  Blues,  and  the  Hair-streaks. 

I.  The  Coppers. — The  Coppers  are  easily  distinguished 
from  other  gossamer-winged  butterflies  by  their  orange-red 
and  brown  colors,  each  with  a  coppery  tinge,  and  conspicu- 
ous black  markings.  They  are  the  stoutest  of  the  Lycsenidae. 
About  twenty  species  are  known  to  occur  in  this  country ; 
the  three  following  will  serve-as  illustrations: — 

The  American  Copper,  Heodes  kypophlaas  (He-o'des 
hyp-o-phlae'as). — This  is  the  most  common  of  our  coppers 
in  the  Northeastern  States  and  in  Canada.  Its  range  ex- 
tends also  along  the  boundary  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  southward  into  Cali- 
fornia ;  and  in  the  east  along  the  Alleghany  Mountains 
south  to  Georgia.  It  is  represented  on  Plate  I  (Fig.  4). 
The  fore  wings  are  orange-red  above,  spotted  with  black, 
and  with  a  blackish  brown  outer  border  ;  the  hind  wings  are 
coppery  brown,  with  a  broad  orange-red  band  on  the  outer 
margin  ;  this  band  is  indented  by  four  black  spots. 

The  larva  feeds  on  the  common  sorrel  (Rumex  acetosella). 

The  Bronze  Copper,  Chrysoplianus  thoe  (Chrys-o-pha'nus 
tho'e). — This  is  larger  than  the  preceding  species,  the  wings 
expanding  one  and  one  half  inches  or  more.  In  the  male 
the  wings  are  coppery  brown  above,  spotted  with  black,  and 
with  a  broad  orange-red  band  on  the  outer  margin  of  the 
hind  wings.  The  female  differs  in  having  the  fore  wings 
orange-red  above,  with  prominent  black  spots. 

This  species  occurs  in  the  Middle  and  Western  States 
from  the  Connecticut  Valley  to  Nebraska.  The  larva  feeds 
on  curled  dock  (Rumex  crispus). 

The  Wanderer,  Feniseca  tarquinius  (Fe-nis'e-ca  tar-quin'i- 
us).— This  butterfly  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  all 
other  Lycaenids  in  our  fauna  by  the  fact  that  vein  V,  of 
the  fore  wings  coalesces  with  radius  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance beyond  the  apex  of  the  discal  cell.  The  upper  surface 
of  the  wings  is  dark  brown,  with  a  large,  irregular,  orange- 


LEPIDOP  TERA .  39 1 

yellow  patch  on  the  disk  of  the  fore  wing,  and  one  of  the 
same  color  next  the  anal  angle  of  the  hind  wing. 

This  species  is  of  unusual  interest,  as  the  larva  is  carniv- 
orous in  its  habits.  It  feeds  on  plant-lice ;  and,  so  far  as 
observed,  it  feeds  only  on  the  woolly  aphids.  It  is  found 
more  often  in  colonies  of  the  Alder  Blight  (Schizoneura  tes- 
sellata)  than  in  those  of  the  allied  species.  It  is  found  from 
Maine  to  Northern  Florida  and  westward  to  Kansas.  Jt  is  a 
very  local  insect,  being  found  only  in  the  neighborhood  of 
water  where  alder  grows. 

II.  The  Blues. — The  Blues  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  other  gossamer-winged  butterflies  by  the  slender  form 
of  the  body,  and  the  blue  color  of  the  upper  surface  of  the 
wings.  About  fifty  North  American  species  have  been  de- 
scribed;  but  most  of  these  occur  only  in  the  far  West. 
This  is  a  rather  difficult  group  to  study  owing  to  the  fact 
that  in  several  cases  a  single  species  exists  under  two  or 
more  distinct  forms,  and  also  that  the  two  sexes  of  the  same 
species  may  differ  greatly.  It  often  happens  that  two  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  sex  but  of  different  species  resemble 
each  other  more  closely  in  the  coloring  of  the  upper  sur- 
face than  do  the  two  sexes  of  either  of  the  species.  In 
each  of  our  eastern  species  the  upper  surface  of  the  wings 
of  the  female  is  much  darker  than  that  of  the  male. 

The  Spring  Azure,  Cyaniris  pseudargiolus  (Cy-a-ni'ris 
pseud-ar-gi'o-lus). — In  this  species  the  hind  wings  are  with- 
out tails,  the  eyes  are  hairy,  and  the  lower  surface  of  the 
wings  is  pale  ash-gray.  This  combination  of  characters  will 
distinguish  it  from  all  other  blues  occurring  in  the  Eastern 
United  States.  But  the  species  is  not  confined  to  this  re- 
gion, as  it  occurs  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States 
and  in  a  large  part  of  Canada. 

This  butterfly  exhibits  polymorphism  to  the  greatest 
degree  of  any  known  species  ;  nine  or  ten  forms  have  been 
described.  Two  of  these  are  represented  on  Plate  VI 
(Figs,  i  and  7). 

The   larva   feeds   on    the    buds   and   flowers  of  various 


392  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

plants,  especially  those  of  Cornus,  Cimicifuga,  and  Actino- 
meris.  They  are  frequently  attended  by  ants  for  the  sake 
of  the  honey-dew  which  they  excrete  through  tubes  that 
they  push  out  from  the  seventh  and  eighth  abdominal  seg- 
ments. 

The  Tailed  Blue,  Everts  comyntas  (E-ve'res  co-myn'tas). — 
The  butterflies  of  the  genus  Everes  can  be  distinguished 
from  our  other  blues  by  the  presence  of  a  small  tail-like 
prolongation  of  the  hind  wing.  This  is  borne  at  the  end  of 
vein  VII.  Our  common  species  (E.  comyntas]  is  distributed 
over  nearly  all  parts  of  North  America.  The  male  is  dark 
purplish  violet  above,  bordered  with  brown  ;  the  female  is 
dark  brown,  sometimes  flecked  with  bluish  scales.  In  the 
Eastern  United  States  this  is  the  only  species  of  the  genus. 
The  larva  feeds  upon  clover  and  other  leguminous 
plants. 

III.  The  Hair-streaks. — The  Hair-streaks  are  distinguished 
from  the  other  Lycaeninae  by  the  fact  that  radius  of  the 
fore  wings  is  only  three-branched.  They  are  usually  dark 
brown,  with  delicate  striped  markings  on  the  lower  surface 
of  the  wings,  which  suggested  the  com- 
mon name  given  above  ;  but  some 
species  are  brilliantly  marked  with  me- 
tallic blue  or  green.  The  hind  wings 
are  also  commonly  furnished  with  deli- 
cate tail-like  prolongations  (Fig.  466). 
The  fore  wings  of  the  male  often  bear 
a  small  dull  oval  spot  near  the  middle 
of  the  costal  part  of  the  wing,  the  dis- 
.c.  &.-Th<ci*  caianu*.  cal  stigma,  which  is  filled  with  the 
peculiar  scent-scales  known  as  andricbnia.  The  males  are 
also  distinguished  by  having  a  tuft  of  hair-like  scales,  the 
beard,  on  the  front ;  this  is  wanting  or  very  thin  in  the  fe- 
males. About  fifty  species  occur  in  America  north  of 
Mexico ;  of  these  nearly  twenty  occur  in  the  eastern  half 
of  the  United  States. 

The  Banded  Hair-streak,  Thecla  calanus  (Thec'la  cal'a- 


LEPIDOPTERA.  393 

nus). — In  the  Northeastern  United  States  the  most  common 
of  the  hair-streaks  is  this  species  (Fig.  466).  The  upper 
surface  of  the  wings  is  dark  brown  or  blackish  brown.  The 
under  surface  is  blackish  slate-brown  nearly  as  dark  as  the 
upper  surface,  and  marked  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

The  larva  feeds  on  oak  and  hickory.  Excepting  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Gulf  States,  the  species  is  found 
throughout  our  territory  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
in  the  southern  part  of  Canada. 

The  Olive  Hair-streak,  Mitoura  damon  (Mi-tou'ra 
da'mon). — The  upper  surface  of  the  wings  is  dark  brown, 
with  the  disk  more  or  less  deeply  suffused  with  brassy  yellow 
in  the  male  or  tawny  in  the  female ;  the  hind  wing  has  two 
tails,  one  much  longer  than  the  other,  both  black  tipped 
with  white.  The  lower  surface  of  the  hind  wings  is  deep 
green  ;  both  fore  and  hind  wings  are  marked  with  white  bars 
bordered  with  brown  (Plate  VI,  Fig.  6). 

The  larva  feeds  on  red  cedar.  The  species  occurs  from 
Massachusetts  to  Florida  and  westward  to  Dakota  and 
Texas. 

The  Banded  Elfin,  Incisalia  niphon  (In-ci-sa'li-a  ni'phon). 
—In  the  butterflies  of  the  genus  Incisalia  the  fringe  of  the 
outer  margin  of  the  hind  wings  is  slightly  prolonged  at  the 
end  of  each  vein,  giving  the  wings  a  scalloped  outline ; 
they  also  lack  tail-like  prolongations  of  the  hind  wings. 
There  are  several  species  occurring  on  both  sides  of  the  con- 
tinent. One  of  these,  the  Banded  Elfin,  is  represented  on 
Plate  VI  (Fig.  4).  In  this  species  there  is  a  distinct  white 
or  whitish  edging  near  the  base  of  the  under  side  of  the 
hind  wing  which  limits  a  darker  band  that  occupies  the 
outer  two  thirds  of  the  basal  half  of  the  wing. 

This  species  occurs  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States. 
The  larva  feeds  on  pine. 

The  Hair-streaks  described  above  are  of  moderate  size 
and  modest  colors.  The  two  following  will  serve  to  illustrate 
a  somewhat  different  type. 

The  Great  Purple  Hair-streak,  Atlides  haksus  (At'li-des 


394  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

ha-le'sus). — This  is  the  largest  of  our  eastern  hair-streaks, 
the  larger  individuals  expanding  two  inches.  In  the  male 
the  greater  part  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  wings  is  bright 
blue ;  the  disca.l  stigma,  the  outer  fourth  of  the  fore  wings, 
the  apex  of -the  inner  margin  of  the  hind  wings,  and  the 
tails  are  black.  In  the  female  the  outer  half  of  the  wings  is 
black. 

The  specfes  occurs  in  the  southern  half  of  the  United 
States  and  southward.  It  has  been  found  as  far  north  as 
Illinois.  "The  larva  is  said  to  feed  on  oak. 

The  White-M  Hair-streak,  Eupsyche  m-album  (Eu-psy'- 
che  m-al'bum). — This  is  a -smaller  species,  expanding  about 
one"  and  one  half  inches.  The  upper  surface  of  the  disk 
of  the  wings  is  a  rich,  glossy  dark  blue,  with  green  reflec- 
tions ;  a  broad  outer  border  and  costal  margin  are  black. 
The  hind  wing  has  two  tails,  and  a  bright  dark  orange 
spot  preceded  by  white  at  the  anal  angle.  The  under  sur- 
face is  brownish  gray,  and  on  this  surface  both  wings  are 
crossed  by  .a  common,  narrow  white  stripe,  which  forms  a 
large  W  or  reversed  M  on  the  hind  wings. 

This  species  occurs  in  the  southern  half  of  the  United 
States!  The  larva  feeds  on  oak  and  on  Astrangnlns. 

Subfamily  LEMONIIN.E  (Le-mon-i-i'nae). 
The  Lemoniids  (Lc-mo' ni-ids). 

This  is  a  large  subfamily ;  but  the  species  are  found 
chiefly  in  South  and  Central  America.  In  our  fauna  it  is 
represented  only  by  a  small  number  of  rare  butterflies. 

If  we  except  one  Floridian  species  (Eumenia  atala),  this 
subfamily  is  represented  in  the  Eastern  United  States  by 
only  two  species.  In  the  far  West  eleven  others  are  now 
known.  The  eastern  species  are  the  Large  Metal-mark, 
Calephelis  borealis  (Cal-e-phe'lis  bo-re-a'lis),  which  expands 
one  inch  or  "more,  and  the  Small  Metal-mark,  Calephelis 
canius  (C.  cae'ni-us),  which  expands  less  than  four  fifths  of  an 
inch.-  In  both  species  there  are  on  the  outer  half  of  the 
wings  two  lines  of  shining  lead-colored  scales. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


395 


Family  NYMPHALID.E  (Nym-phari-dae). . 
The  Four-footed  Butterflies. 

The  family  Nymphalidae  includes  chiefly  butterflies  of 
medium  or  large  size ;  but  a  few  of  the  species  are  small. 
With  a  single  exception,  these  butterflies  differ  from  all 
others  in  our  fauna  in  having  the  fore  legs  very  greatly  re- 
duced in  size  in  both  sexes.  So  great  is  the  reduction  that 
these  legs  cannot  be  used  for  walking,  but  are  folded  on 
the  breast  like  a  tippet.  A  slight  reduction  in  the  size  of  the 
fore  legs  occurs  in  the  Lycaenidae,  but  there  it  occurs  only  in 
the  males,  and  to  a  much  less  degree  than  in  this  family. 

In  the  venation  of  the  wings  (Fig.  467)  the  four-footed 
butterflies  differ  from 
the  two  preceding 
families  in  retaining 
all  of  the  branches 
of  radius  of  the  fore 
wings,  this  vein  be- 
ing five-branched. 

The  larvae  are 
nearly  or  quite  cylin- 
drical,  and  are 
clothed  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  with 
hairs  and  sometimes 
with  branching 
spines. 

The  chrysalids  are 
usually  angular,  and 
often  bear  large  pro- 
jecting prominences ; 
sometimes  they  are 
rounded.  They  al- 
ways hang  head 

downwards,    SUp-  F.G.  467.-Wings  of  Basilarchia  a*ty**ax. 

ported  only  by  the  tail,  which  is  fastened  to  a  button  of  silk. 


396  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

This  is  the  largest  of  the  families  of  butterflies.  It  not 
only  surpasses  the  other  families  in  number  of  species,  but 
it  contains  a  greater  number  and  variety  of  striking  forms, 
and  also  a  larger  proportion  of  the  species  of  butterflies 
familiar  to  every  observer  of  insects.  There  may  be  in  any 
locality  one  or  two  species  of  yellows  or  of  whites  more 
abundant,  but  the  larger  number  of  species  commonly  ob- 
served are  four-footed  butterflies. 

Five  subfamilies  of  the  Nymphalidae  are  represented  in 
our  fauna.     These  can  be  separated  by  the  following  table, 
which  is  based  on  one  given  by  Mr.  Scudder  : — 
A.  With  none  of  the  veins  of  the  fore  wings  unusually  swollen  at  the 

base. 

B.  Antennae  clothed  with  scales,  at  least  above. 
C.  Fore  wings  at  least  twice  as  long  as  broad,     p.  397. 

HELICONINjE. 

CC.  Fore  wings  less  than  twice  as  long  as  broad. 
D.  Palpi  much  longer  than  the  thorax,    p.  396.  .LIBYTHEJN^E. 
DD.  Palpi  not  as  long  as  the  thorax,    p.  398. .  .NYMPHALIN^;. 

BB.  Antennae  naked,     p.  397 EUPLCEIN/E. 

AA.  With  some  of  the  veins  of  the  fore  wings  greatly  swollen  at  the 
base.    p.  410 SATYRIN^:. 

Subfamily  LlBYTHEIN^E  (Li-byth-e-i'nse). 
The  Long-beaks. 

The  Long-beaks  can  be  easily  recognized  by  their  ex- 
cessively long,  beak-like  palpi,  which  are  from  one  fourth 
to  one  half  as  long  as  the  body 
and  project  straight  forward 
(Fig.  468).  The  outer  margin 
of  the  fore  wings  is  deeply 
notched ;  the  males  have  only 
four  well-developed  legs,  while 

FIG.  W.-Hyfatus  bachmanni.  the   females  haVC  six. 

Only  three  species  have  been  found  in  America  north  of 
Mexico ;  and  of  these  but  one  occurs  in  the  Eastern  United 
States. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  397 

The  Snout  Butterfly,  Hypatus  bachmannii  (Hyp'a-tus 
bach-man'ni-i). —  The  wings  are  blackish  brown  above, 
marked  with  orange  patches  and  white  spots.  The  species 
occurs  throughout  the  Eastern  United  States,  excepting  the 
northern  part  of  New  England  and  the  southern  part  of 
Florida.  The  larva  feeds  on  Celtis  occidentalis. 

Subfamily  HELICONIIN^:  (Hel-i-co-ni-i'nae). 

The  Heliconians  (Hel-i-co'ni-ans). 

This  subfamily  consists  chiefly  of  tropical  butterflies  ;  a 
few  species,  however,  extend  into  the  southern  portion  of 
our  territory.  They  are  of  medium  or  rather  large  size, 
and  are  easily  recognized  by  their  narrow  and  elongated  fore 
wings,  which  are  usually  more  than  twice  as  long  as  broad. 

Subfamily  EUPLCEIN.E  (Eu-plce-i'nae). 
The  Euplceids  (En-pics' ids). 

These  are  butterflies  of  large  size,  with  rounded  and 
somewhat  elongated  wings,  the  apical  portion  of  the  fore 
wings  being  much  produced.  The  absence  of  scales  on  the 
antennae  is  the  most  available  character  for  distinguishing 
these  insects.  Only  a  very  few  species  occur  in  our  fauna. 
The  best  known  of  these  is  the  following  :— 

The  Monarch,  Anosia  plexippus  (A-no'si-a  plex-ip'pus).— 
The  upper  surface  of  the  wings  is  light  tawny  brown,  with 
the  borders  and  veins  black,  and  with  two  rows  of  white 
spots  on  the  costal  and  outer  borders  as  shown  in  Figure 
469.  The  figure  represents  a  female  ;  in  the  male  the  veins 
of  the  wings  are  more  narrowly  margined  with  black,  and 
there  is  a  black  pouch  next  to  vein  VII,  of  the  hind  wings, 
containing  scent-scales  or  androconia. 

The  larva  feeds  upon  different  species  of  milk-weed,  As- 
depias.  When  full  grown  it  is  lemon  or  greenish  yellow, 
broadly  banded  with  shining  black.  It  is  remarkable  for 
bearing  a  pair  of  long  fleshy  filaments  on  the  second  thoracic 
segment,  and  a  similar  pair  on  the  'seventh  abdominal  seg- 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


ment.     The  chrysalis  is  about   one  inch   in   length.     It   is 
bright  green,  dotted  with  gold. 

This  species  occurs  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
United  States,  and  is  distributed  far  beyond  our  borders. 


FIG.  469.— A  nosia  plexipfus, 

It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  species  dies  out  each  year  in 
a  large  part  of  the  Northern  States,  and  that  those  butter- 
flies which  appear  first  in  this  region,  in  June  or  July,  have 
flown  hither  from  the  South,  where  they  hibernate  in  the 
adult  state.  In  the  extreme  South  they  fly  all  winter. 
Great  swarms,  including  many  thousands  of  individuals  of 
this  species,  are  sometimes  seen. 

Subfamily  NYMPHALIN^:  (Nym-pha-li'nae). 
The  Typical  Nymphalids  (Nym-pha' lids). 

The  butterflies  of  this  subfamily  vary  so  much  in  the 
outline  and  ornamentation  of  the  wings  that  it  is  impossible 
to  briefly  characterize  them.  The  student,  however,  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  them  by  means  of  the 
table  of  subfamilies  already  given.  Our  genera  represent 
five  quite  distinct  groups,  as  follows : — 

I.  The  Crescent-spots  or  the  Melitaids  (Mel-i-tse'ids).— This 
group  includes  some  of  the  smaller  members  of  the  Nym- 


LEPIDOPTERA.  399 

phalinse.  The  color  of  the  wings  is  sometimes  black,  with 
red  and  yellow  spots ;  but  it  is  usually  fulvous,  with  the  fore 
wings  broadly  margined,  especially  at  the  apex,  with  black, 
and  crossed  by  many  irregular  lines  of  black.  About  fifty 
species  occur  in  this  country. 

The  Baltimore,  Euphy  dry  as  phaeton  (Eu-phyd'ry-as  pha'- 
e-ton). — The  wings  above  are  black,  with  an  outer  marginal 
row  of  dark  reddish-orange  spots,  and  parallel  rows  of  very 
pale  yellow  spots ;  on  the  fore  wings  a  third  row  is  more  or 
less  represented.  The  wings  expand  two  inches  or  more. 

The  larvae  feed  on  a  species  of  snakehead  (Chelone 
glabrd) ;  they  are  gregarious,  and  build  a  common  nest  by 
weaving  together  the  leaves  of  their  food-plant.  The  species 
occurs  in  Ontario  and  the  northern  half  of  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  very  local,  the  butter- 
flies remaining  near  the  bogs  or  moist  meadows  where  the 
food-plant  of  the  larva  is  found. 

The  butterflies  of  the  genus  Phyciodes  (Phy-ci-o'des)  and 
the  allied  genera  abound  throughout  our  country.     They  are 
of  small  size,  and  of  a  fulvous  color, 
heavily  marked  with  black.     Each 
species  varies  considerably  in  mark- 
ings, and  different  species  resemble 
each    other   quite   closely,   making 
this  a  difficult  group  for  the  begin- 
ning  student.      Figure  470   repre- 
sents a  common  species. 

II.  The  Fritillaries  (Frit'il-la-ries)  or  the  Argynnids  (Ar- 
gyn'nids).— This  group  includes  butterflies  varying  from  a 
little  below  to  somewhat  above  medium  size.  The  color  of 
the  wings  is  fulvous,  bordered  and  checkered  with  black,  but 
not  so  heavily  bordered  as  in  the  crescent-spots.  The  lower 
surface  of  the  hind  wings  is  often  marked  with  curving  rows 
of  silvery  spots.  This  is  a  large  group  containing  many 
species,  which  are  extremely  difficult  to  separate.  More 
than  fifty  species  occur  in  America  north  of  Mexico.  The 
larvae  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  violets. 


400 


7 'HE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  Great  Spangled  Fritillary,  Argynnis  cybele  (Ar-gyn'- 
nis  cyb'e-le).— This  species  (Fig.  471)  will  serve  to  illustrate 


FIG.  471. — Argynnis  cybele. 

the  appearance  of  the  larger  members  of  this  group,  those 
belonging  to  the  genus  Argynnis.  In  this  genus  vein  III, 
of  the  fore  wings  arises  before  the  apex  of  the  discal  cell. 

There  are  a  number  of  common  fritillaries  which  resem- 
ble the  preceding  in  color  and  markings  but  which  are  much 
smaller,  the  wings  expanding  considerably  less  than  two 
inches.  These  belong  to  the  genus  Brenthis  (Bren'this).  In 
this  genus  vein  III,  of  the  fore  wings  arises  beyond  the  apex 
of  the  discal  cell. 

The  Variegated  Fritillary,  Euptoieta  claudia  (Eup-toi-e'ta 
clau'di-a). — This  butterfly  agrees  with  the  smaller  fritillaries 

(Brenthis)  in  the  origin 
of  vein  III,  of  the  fore 
wing  beyond  the  apex 
of  the  discal  cell,  but 
differs  from  them  in  the 
shape  of  the  fore  wing, 
the  apex  of  which  is 
much  more  produced 
(Fig.  472),  and  the  outer 

margin,  except  at  the  apex,  concave ;  it  is  also  considerably 
larger. 

This  species  occurs  throughout  the  United  States  east  of 


LEPIDOP  TERA .  40 1 

the  Rocky  Mountains ;  but  it  is  very  rare  in  the  northern 
half  of  this  region. 

III.  The  Angle-wings  or  the  Vanessids  (Va-rres'sids). — To 
this  group  belong  many  of  our  best-known  butterflies.  With 
these  the  outer  margin  of  the  fore  wings  is  usually  decidedly 
angular  or  notched  as  if  a  part  had  been  cut  away.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  species  hibernate  in  the  adult  state,  and 
some  of  them  are  the  first  butterflies  to  appear  in  the  spring. 
Some  of  the  hibernating  species,  however,  remain  in  conceal- 
ment till  quite  late  in  the  season. 

The  Red  Admiral,  Vanessa  atalanta  (Va-nes'sa  at-a- 
lan'ta). — The  wings,  are  purplish  black  above.  On  the  fore 
wing  there  is  a  bright 
orange-colored  band 
beginning  near  the 
middle  of  the  costa, 
and  extending  nearly 
to  the  inner  angle ; 
between  this  and  the 
apex  of  the  wing  are 
several  white  spots, 
as  shown  in  Figure 

FIG.  473.— Vanessa  atalanta. 

473 ;     on    the     hind 

wing  there  is  an  orange  band  on  the  outer  margin  inclosing 
a  row  of  black  spots.  The  lower  surface  of  the  wings  is 
shown  on  Plate  I,  Fig.  6. 

The  larva  feeds  chiefly  on  nettle  and  on  hop.  When 
first  hatched  it  folds  together  a  half-opened  leaf  at  the  sum- 
mit of  the  plant ;  when  larger  it  makes  its  nest  of  a  lower 
expanded  leaf.  There  are  two  broods ;  both  butterflies  and 
chrysalids  hibernate.  This  butterfly  occurs  over  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  European  and  North  American  continents. 

The  Painted   Beauty,  Vanessa  hunt  era  (Va-nes'sa   hun'- 

te-ra). The  wings  above  are  very  dark  brownish  black,  with 

large  irregular  spots  of  golden  orange.  In  the  apical  portion 
of  the  fore  wings  there  are  several  white  spots,  as  shown 


402  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

in  Figure  474.  The  lower  surface  of  the  wings  is  repre- 
sented on  Plate  I,  Fig.  7.  A  characteristic  feature  is  the 
presence  of  two  submarginal  eye-like  spots  on  the  hind 
wing. 

The  larva  feeds  on  everlasting  (Gnaphaliuiri)  and  allied 
plants.  The  species  occurs  in  Ontario  and  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  United  States. 


The  Cosmopolitan  Butterfly,  Vanessa  cardui  (V.  car'du-i). 
— The  butterfly  resembles  the  preceding  very  closely  in 
color  and  markings.  There  is,  however,  a  smaller  propor- 
tion of  orange  markings ;  and  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
hind  wings  there  is  a  submarginal  row  of  four  or  five  eye- 
like  spots. 

The  larva  feeds  upon  Compositae,  especially  thistles. 
This  species  is  very  remarkable  for  its  wide  distribution. 
Mr.  Scudder  states  that  "with  the  exception  of  the  arctic 

regions  and  South  Ameri- 
ca it  is  distributed  over 
the  entire  extent  of  every 
continent." 

The  American  Tor- 
toise-shell, Aglais  milberti 
(Ag'la-is  mil-ber'ti).— The 
wings  above  are  brownish 

FIG.  475-— Aglais  milberti.  111  •    1         i  i 

black,  with  a  broad  orange- 
fulvous  band  between    the    middle   and    the  outer  margin. 


LEP1DOPTERA.  403 

There  are  two  fulvous  spots  in  the  discal-cell  of  the  front 
wing  (Fig.  475). 

The  larvae  feed  upon  nettle  (Urticd) ;  they  are  gregarious 
in  their  early  stages.  This  species  occurs  in  the  northern 
portions  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada. 

The  Mourning-cloak,  Euvanessa  antiopa  (Eu-va-nes'sa 
an-ti'o-pa). — The  wings  above  are  purplish  brown,  with  a 
broad  yellow  border  on  the  outer  margin  sprinkled  with 
brown,  and  a  submarginal  row  of  blue  spots.  The  upper 
surface  is  represented  by  Figure  476,  the  lower  by  Plate  VI, 

Fig.  5- 

The  larvae  live  on  willow,  elm,  poplar,  and  Celtis  ;  they 
are  gregarious,  and  often  strip  larger  branches  of  their 
leaves.  The  species  is  usually  two-brooded.  "  This  butter- 


FIG.  476.— Euvanessa  antiopa. 

fly  is  apparently  distributed  over  the  entire  breadth  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere  below  the  Arctic  Circle  as  far  as  the 
thirtieth  parallel  of  latitude  "  (Scudder). 

The  Compton  Tortoise,  Eugonia  j-album  (Eu-go'ni-a  j-al'- 
bum).— This  butterfly  (Fig.  477)  resembles  in  its  general 
appearance  those  of  the  genus  Polygonia,  but  it  is  sharply  dis- 
tinguished from  them  by  the  inner  margin  of  the  fore  wings 
being  nearly  straight,  by  the  heavier  markings  of  the  fore 


404  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

wings,  and  by  the  presence  of  a  whitish  spot  on  both  fore 
and  hind  wings,  near  the  apex,  and  between  two  larger 
black  patches.  On  the  lower  surface  of  the  hind  wings 
there  is  a  small  L-shaped  silvery  bar.  This  species  occurs 


FIG.  477. — E, 


throughout  Canada  and  the  northern  portion  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Polygonia  (Pol-y-go'ni-a). — The  butterflies  of  this  genus 
resemble  the  preceding  species  in  having  a  metallic  spot  on 
the  lower  surface  of  the  hind  wings,  but  differ  in  having  the 
inner  margin  of  the  fore  wings  roundly  notched  beyond  the 
middle.  Nearly  a  dozen  species  occur  in  this  country. 
These  differ  principally  in  the  coloring  and  markings  of  the 
under  surface  of  the  hind  wings.  The  following  are  some 
of  the  more  common  ones  : — 

The  Green  Comma,  Polygonia  fanmis  (P.  fau'nus). — The 
silvery  mark  of  the  hind  wings  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
a  C  or  a  G,  the  ends  being  more  or  less  expanded  (Plate  VI, 
Fig.  2),  but  sometimes  it  is  reduced  to  the  form  of  an  L. 
The  lower  surface  of  the  wings  is  more  greatly  variegated 
than  in  any  other  species  of  this  genus  ;  and  there  is  a  larger 
amount  of  green  on  this  surface  than  in  any  other  of  the 
eastern  species,  there  being  two  nearly  complete  rows  of 
green  spots  on  the  outer  third  of  each  wing. 

The  larva  feeds  upon  black  birch,  willow,  currant,  and 


LEPfDOPTERA.  405 

wild  gooseberry.  This  is  a  Canadian  species  ;  but  it  is  also 
found  in  the  mountains  of  New  England  and  of  New  York, 
and  in  the  northern  portions  of  the  Western  States,  extend- 
ing as  far  south  as  Iowa. 

The  Hop-merchant,  Polygonia  comma  (P.  com'ma). 
—As  in  the  preceding  species,  the  silvery  mark  of  the 
hind  wings  is  in  the  form  of  a  C  or  a  G  (PI.  VI,  Fig.  3) ; 
but  the  general  color  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  hind  wings 
is  very  different,  being  marbled  with  light  and  dark  brown  ; 
and  the  green  spots  so  characteristic  of  faunus  are  repre- 
sented here  by  a  few  liliaceous  scales  on  a  submarginal  row 
of  black  spots. 

Two  forms  of  this  species  occur.  In  one,  P.  comma  dryas, 
the  hind  wings  above  are  suffused  with  black  on  the  outer 
half,  so  that  the  submarginal  row  of  fulvous  spots  is  ob- 
scured, and  on  the  lower  side  the  wings  are  more  yellowish 
than  in  the  other  form.  The  latter  is  known  as  P.  comma 
harrisii  (P.  c.  har-ris'i-i). 

The  larva  feeds  upon  hop,  elm,  nettle,  and  false-nettle. 
It  is  often  abundant  in  hop-yards,  and  the  chrysalids  are 
commonly  known  as  hop-merchants,  from  a  saying  that  the 
golden  or  silvery  color  of  the  metallic  spots  on  the  back  of 
the  chrysalis  indicates  whether  the  price  of  hops  is  to  be 
high  or  low.  This  species  is  found  in  Canada  and  the 
northern  part  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States;  its 
range  extends  south  to  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Arkansas, 
and  Indian  Territory. 

The  Gray  Comma,  Polygonia  progne  (P.  prog'ne).— 
In  its  general  appearance  this  butterfly  closely  resembles 
P.  comma,  but  it  can  be  readily  distinguished  by  the  form 
of  the  silvery  mark,  which  is  L-shaped  and  tapers  towards 
the  ends. 

The  larva  feeds  on  currant,  wild  gooseberry,  and  rarely 
elm.  This  species  occurs  in  Canada  and  in  the  northern  por- 
tion of  the  United  States  except  in  the  extreme  West. 

The    Violet   Tip,  Polygonia    interrogationis  (P.    in-ter- 


406  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

ro-ga-ti-o'nis). — This  butterfly  (Plate  VI,  Fig.  8)  is  some- 
what larger  than  the  preceding  species  of  Polygonia,  and 
differs  in  the  form  of  the  silvery  mark,  which  consists  of  a 
dot  and  a  crescent,  resembling  somewhat  an  interrogation- 
mark,  but  more  nearly  a  semicolon.  On  the  upper  side  the 
outer  margins  of  the  wings  and  the  tails  of  the  hind  wings 
are  tinged  with  violet. 

This  species  is  dimorphic  ;  and  the  two  forms  differ  so 
constantly  and  in  such  a  marked  manner  that  they  were 
described  as  distinct  species.  In  P.  interrogations  fabricii 
(P.  i.  fa-bric'i-i)  the  upper  surface  of  the  hind  wings  is  not  much 
darker  than  that  of  the  fore  wings,  and  there  is  a  submarginal 
row  of  fulvous  spots  in  the  broad  ferruginous  brown  border. 
In  P.  interrogations  umbrosa  (P.  i.  um-bro'sa)  the  outer  two 
thirds  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  hind  wings  is  blackish,  and 
the  submarginal  fulvous  spots  are  obliterated,  except  some- 
times faint  traces  near  the  costal  margin. 

This  species  is  found  in  Canada  and  throughout  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

IV.  The  Sovereigns. — These  butterflies  differ  from  other 
Nymphalinae  in  having  the  club  of  the  antennae  marked  by 
four  slightly  elevated  lines,  and  in  that  veins  I,  II,  and  III 
of  the  hind  wing  (Fig.  467,  p.  395)  separate  at  the  same 
point.  This  group  includes  some  of  our  most  elegant  but- 
terflies ;  the  larvae  are  grotesque  in  appearance,  being  very 
irregular  in  form  and  strikingly  mottled  or  spotted. 

The  Banded  Purple,  Basilarchia  art  he  mis  (Bas-i-lar'chi-a 
ar'the-mis). — The  upper  surface  of  the  wings  is  velvety 
chocolate-black,  marked  with  a  conspicuous  white  bow 
(Fig.  478). 

This  is  a  Canadian  species  which  extends  a  short  distance 
into  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States ;  the  larva  feeds 
on  birch,  willow,  poplar,  and  many  other  plants. 

The  Red  Spotted  Purple,  Basilarchia  astyanax  (B. 
as-ty'a-nax). — The  upper  surface  of  the  wings  is  velvety 
indigo-black,  tinged  with  blue  or  green.  There  are  three 


LEPIDOP  TERA .  407 

rows  of  blue  or  green  spots  on  the  outer  third  of  the  hind 
wings  :  the  spots  of  the  inner  row  vary  greatly  in  width  in 
different  individuals.  On  the  lower  surface  there  is  a  reddish 
orange  spot  in  the  discal  cell  of  the  fore  wings,  and  one  on 
the  discal  vein  ;  on  the  hind  wings  there  are  two  orange  spots 
similarly  situated,  a  third  at  the  base  of  cell  II,  and  a  row  of 


FIG.  n^.— Basilarchia  arthemis. 

seven  spots  just  within  a  double  row  of  submarginal  blue 
or  green  spots. 

This  species  occurs  throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
Eastern  United  States  south  of  the  43d  parallel  of  latitude. 
The  larva  feeds  on  many  plants ;  among  them  are  plum, 
apple,  pear,  and  gooseberry. 

The  Hybrid  Purple,  Basilarchia  astyanax-arthemis. — 
There  occurs,  along  a  narrow  belt  of  country  extending  from 
southern  Wisconsin  and  northern  Illinois  eastward  to  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  New  England,  a  butterfly  that  closely  re- 
sembles the  Red-spotted  Purple,  but  which  has  more  or  less 
of  the  white  band  of  the  Banded  Purple.  This  is  believed 
to  be  a  hybrid  between  these  two  species.  The  region  in 
which  it  occurs  is  that  in  which  the  ranges  of  the  two  species 
overlap.  North  of  this  region,  of  these  three  forms  only  the 
Banded  Purple  occurs  ;  south  of  it  only  the  Red-spotted 
Purple  is  tound. 

The  Viceroy,  Basilarchia  archippus  (B.  ar-chip'pus).— 
The  wings  vary  in  color  from  a  dull  yellow  orange  tinged 


408  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

slightly  with  brown  to  a  dark  cinnamon  color;  they  are 
bordered  with  black,  and  all  the  veins  are  edged  with  the 
same  color  (Fig.  479).  The  fringe  of  the  wings  is  spotted 
with  white,  and  the  black  border  on  the  outer  margin  con- 
tains a  row  of  white  spots. 


FIG.  w—Basilarchia  archippus. 

This  species  is  remarkable  for  its  resemblance  to  the 
Monarch  (Anosia  plexippus,  Fig.  469).  But  aside  from  the 
structural  characters  separating  the  two  subfamilies  which 
these  butterflies  represent,  the  Viceroy  can  be  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  species  it  mimics  by  its  smaller  size,  and 
by  the  presence  of  a  transverse  black  band  on  the  hind 
wings. 

It  is  believed  that  the  resemblance  of  these  two  species 
is  not  merely  accidental,  but  is  a  result  of  the  action  of  the 
law  of  natural  selection.  The  butterflies  of  the  subfamily 
to  which  the  Monarch  belongs  (Enplceince)  are  exempt  from 
the  attacks  of  birds.  It  is  supposed  that  this  exemption  is 
due  to  the  possession  by  these  butterflies  of  a  disagreeable 
odor.  With  such  an  odor  the  conspicuous  coloring  of  the 
butterflies  is  protective,  the  birds  soon  learning  that  such 
butterflies  are  not  fit  for  food.  And  it  can  be  seen  that  these 
birds  will  naturally  leave  undisturbed  any  other  butterflies 


LEPIDOPTERA.  409 

that  resemble  the  ill-smelling  ones,  even  though  they  do  not 
possess  a  similar  odor.  According  to  the  theory  of  natural 
selection  these  resemblances  have  been  produced  as  follows. 
In  the  case  of  a  variable  species  that  is  unprotected  by  any 
disagreeable  quality,  any  variation  towards  a  protected  spe- 
cies will  tend  to  preserve  the  life  of  the  individual  possessing 
it.  And  in  turn  such  offspring  of  these  individuals  as  still 
more  nearly  resemble  the  protected  species  will  be  most 
likely  to  be  preserved.  The  continued  action  of  this  natural 
selection  will  result  in  producing  a  species  that  closely  re- 
sembles the  protected  one,  even  though  it  may  be  very 
different  structurally  from  the  one  that  it  mimics. 

Many  instances  of  unconscious  mimicry  of  this  kind  are 
known.  They  are  especially  abundant  in  the  tropics  where 
the  foul-smelling  Heliconince  are  most  abundant.  The  bad 
odor  of  these  butterflies  when  living  is  so  marked  that  it 
can  be  detected  by  the  human  nose ;  and  it  is  found  that 
many  species  of  them  are  mimicked  by  other  butterflies,  and 
especially  those  of  the  Pieridae.  The  mimicry  is  not  con- 
fined to  similarity  in  coloring,  but  extends  to  the  shape  of 
the  wings  and  manner  of  flight. 

The  larva  of  the  Viceroy  feeds  upon  willow,  poplar,  balm 
of  gilead,  aspen,  and  cottonwood.  The  species  two-  or  three- 
brooded,  and  hibernates  as  a  partially  grown  larva  in  a 
nest  made  of  a  rolled  leaf.  This  nest  is  lined  with  silk, 
and  the  leaf  is  fastened  to  the  twig  with  silk  so  that  it  can- 
not  fall  during  the  winter.  Mr.  Scudder  states  that  so  far 
as  is  known  to  him  all  of  the  species  of  the  Sovereigns  hi- 
bernate as  larvae  in  nests  of  this  kind.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  only  the  autumn  brood  of  caterpillars  make  these  nests. 
So  that  the  nest-building  instinct  appears  only  in  alternate 
generations,  or  even  less  frequently  when  the  species  is 
more  than  two-brooded.  B.  archippus  is  found  over  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  United  States  as  far  west  as  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains,  and  has  been  found  sparingly  even  to 
the  Pacific  coast  near  our  northern  boundaries. 


4,0  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

As  Anosia  plexippus  has  been  termed  the  Monarch,  this 
species  is  aptly  called  the  Viceroy. 

V    The  Emperors.-lte   butterflies   of   this    group  are 
found  chiefly  in  the  southern  part  of  our  country.     The  f 
lowing  is  the  best  known  species  :— 

The  Goat-weed  Butterfly,  Anaa  andria  (A-nae  a  an- 
dri-a)-The  female  of  this  species  can  be  easily  recognized 
by  Figure  480.  The  male  is  smaller,  with  wings  of  a  rich 


FIG.  480.—  Ancea.  andria. 

dark  orange,  margined  with  brown,  and  without  the  light- 
colored  band  characteristic  of  the  female. 

This  species  is  found  in  the  Western  States  from  Illinois 
to  Texas.  The  larva  feeds  on  goat-weed  (Croto)i). 

Subfamily  SATYRIN.E  (Sat-y-ri'nae). 
'  The  Meadow-browns  or  Satyrs. 

This  subfamily  includes  chiefly  brown  butterflies  whose 
markings  consist  almost  entirely  of  eye-like  spots.  Some 
western  species,  however,  are  bright-colored.  Our  forms 
can  be  easily  recognized  by  their  having  some  of  the  veins 
of  the  fore  wings  greatly  swollen  at  the  base. 

The  larvae  are  cylindrical,  tapering  more  or  less  towards 
each  end.  The  caudal  segment  is  bifurcated,  a  character 
that  distinguishes  them  from  all  other  American  butterfly 


LEP1DOPTEKA.  41 1 

larvae  excepting  those  of  some  of  the  Emperors  (Chlorippe), 
not  described  in  this  book.  Nearly  sixty  species  belonging 
to  this  subfamily  have  been  described  from  America  north 
of  Mexico. 

The  Eyed  Brown,  Satyr  odes  eurydice  (Sat-y-ro'des  eu- 
ryd'i-ce). — The  upper  surface 
of  the  wings  is  soft  mouse- 
brown  on  the  basal  half  and 
paler  beyond,  considerably  so 
in  the  female  ;  each  wing  bears 
a  row  of  four  or  five  small 
black  eye-like  spots  (Fig.  481). 
This  species  is  found  in  Onta- 
rio, and  throughout  the  east-  FIG.  ^i.-Satyredt*  eurydice. 

ern  half  of  the  United  States. 

The  Dull-eyed  Grayling,  Cercyonis  nephele  (Cer-cy'o-nis 
neph'e-le). — The  two  most  conspicuous  of  the  Meadow- 
browns  that  occur  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  this 
and  the  following  one ;  they  are  comparatively  large 
species,  expanding  from  two  inches  to  two  and  one  fourth 
inches  ;  both  are  dark  brown.  In  this  species  there  are  on 
the  upper  surface  of  the  fore  wing  on  the  outer  third  of 
the  wing  two  black  spots  with  white  or  bluish  centers  ; 
sometimes  the  wing  is  tinged  with  yellow  in  the  vicinity  of 
these  spots,  but  generally  the  tinge  is  very  slight,  and  it  is 
never  so  deep  as  in  the  next  species;  the  hind  wing  is  with 
or  without  a  spot  in  cell  VII, ,  and  sometimes  with  a  spot  on 
either  side  of  this  one.  On  the  lower  surface  the  eye-like 
spots  of  the  fore  wings  are  distinctly  ringed  with  yellowish  ; 
and  the  hind  wings  are  with  or  without  eye-like  spots, 
usually  with  six  of  them.  (See  the  Hybrid  Graylings, 
below.) 

The  Blue-eyed  Grayling,  Cercyonis  alope  (C.  al'o-pe). — 
This  species  closely  resembles  the  preceding,  but  it  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  presence  of  a  distinct  yellow  or  pale  orange 
band  on  the  outer  half  of  the  fore  wings. 


412  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  larvae  of  both  of  these  species  feed  upon  grass  ; 
the  butterflies  fly  during  the  latter  half  of  the  summer, 
and  the  larvae  begin  hibernating  as  soon  as  hatched. 

The  Hybrid  Graylings,  Cercyonis  alope-nephele. — The 
Dull-eyed  Grayling  is  a  northern  species,  occurring  in 
Canada  and  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
Blue-eyed  Grayling  is  found  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  except  in 
the  extreme  North  and  South.  The  ranges  of  the  two 
overlap  in  the  southern  portions  of  New  England,  New 
York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska ;  and  in  the 
northern  portions  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  In  this 
belt  both  species  occur,  and  also  intergrades  between  them ; 
these  intergrades  may  be  called  Hybrid  Graylings. 

The  White  Mountain  Butterfly,  (Eneis  semidea  (GE-ne'is 
se-mid'e-a). — Comparatively  few  students  who  study  this 
book  will  collect  this  butterfly ;  but  we  refer  to  it  on  ac- 
count of  its  remarkable  distribution.  It  is  found  only  on 
the  higher  parts  (above  5000  feet)  of  the  White  Mountains 
in  New  Hampshire,  and  on  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  of  Colorado,  above  12,000  feet. 

These  two  widely  separated  colonies  of  this  butterfly  are 
believed  to  be  the  remnants  of  an  Arctic  fauna  which  was 
forced  southward  during  the  Ice  Age.  At  the  close  of  this 
period,  as  the  Arctic  animals  followed  the  retreating  ice 
northward,  the  tops  of  these  mountains  became  colonized 
by  the  cold-loving  forms.  Here  they  found  a  congenial 
resting-place,  while  the  main  body  of  their  congeners,  which 
occupied  the  intervening  region,  was  driven  northward  by 
the  increasing  heat  of  the  lower  land.  Here  they  remain, 
clinging  to  these  islands  of  cold  projecting  above  the  fatal 
sea  of  warmth  that  fills  the  valleys  below. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

Order  DlPTERA  (Dip'te-ra). 

The  Flies. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  only  two  wings ;  these 
are  borne  by  the  mesothorax.  The  metathorax  is  furnished 
with  a  pair  of  knobbed  threads,  the  halteres.  The  mouth- 
parts  are  formed  for  sucking.  The  metamorphosis  is  com- 
plete. 

To  the  order  Diptera  belong  all  insects  that  are  properly 
termed  flies,  and  only  these.  The  word  "fly"  forms  a 
part  of  many  compound  names  of  insects  of  other  orders, 
as  butterfly,  stone-fly,  May-fly,  and  Chalcis-fly ;  but  when 
used  alone,  it  is  correctly  applied  only  to  dipterous  insects. 
To  some  flies  other  common  names  have  been  applied,  as 
mosquito,  gnat,  and  midge. 

The  name  Diptera  is  from  two  Greek  words :  dis,  two, 
and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  was  suggested  by  the  fact  that  the 
flies  are  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  a  single  pair  of 
wings ;  for  no  fly  has  more  than  two  wings,  and  only  a  few 
are  wingless. 

The  wings  of  flies  are  thin,  membranous,  and  usually 
either  naked  or  clothed  with  microscopic  hairs;  but  with 
mosquitoes  the  wings  bear  scales,  and  with  the  moth-like 
flies  (Psychodidae)  and  some  others  the  clothing  of  hairs  is 
very  conspicuous.  The  hind  wings  are  represented  by  a 
pair  of  knobbed  threads,  the  halteres  (hal-te'res) ;  these  can 
be  easily  seen  in  a  crane-fly  (Fig.  482).  The  function  of 

413 


4I4  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

these  rudimentary  wings  is  not  known ;  but  they  doubtle-ss 

have  some  important  use,  for  they  are  present  in  nearly  all 

flies,  even  when  the  front  wings  are  wanting. 

The   mouth-parts  of  flies  are  formed  for  sucking,  and 

sometimes  also  for  piercing.     Their  structure  differs  greatly 

in  different  families;  and 
in  some  cases  it  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  determine 
the  correspondence  of  the 
different  parts.  In  the 
more  typical  forms  the 
mouth-parts  consist  of  six 
bristle -like  or  lance -like 
organs  enclosed  in  a  sheath, 
and  a  pair  of  jointed  palpi. 
A  difference  of  opinion 
exists  as  to  the  corre- 

F.G.    482.-A   crane-fly,    showing   wings    and     SpOndenCC   of    these    parts  ; 

but  according  to  the  most 

generally  accepted  view  the  six  bristles  represent  the 
upper  lip  (labruni),  the  tongue  (Jiypopharynx),  the. two  man- 
dibles, and  the  two  maxillae,  and  the  sheath  enclosing  these 
bristles  is  the  lower  lip  (labiuiri).  The  palpi  which  are  not 
enclosed  in  the  sheath  are  the  maxillary  palpi.  At  the  tip 
of  the  lower  lip  there  is.  on  each  side,  a  lobe-like  appendage  ; 
these  are  the  labial  palpi.  The  labial  palpi  of  certain  flies 
are  quite  large  ;  in  the  House-fly,  for  example,  they  are  ex- 
panded into  broad  plates,  which  are  fitted  for  rasping. 

In  their  transformations  flies  pass  through  a  complete 
metamorphosis.  The  larvae  are  commonly  called  maggots. 
These  are  usually  cylindrical  and  are  footless ;  some  possess 
a  distinct  head,  others  do  not ;  the  form  of  the  mouth-parts 
varies  greatly  in  the  different  families;  and  there  are  re- 
markable variations  in  the  form  of  the  respiratory  organs, 
especially  as  to  the  number  and  position  of  the  spiracles. 
The  pupae  are  usually  either  naked  or  enclosed  in  the  last 


DIPTERA. 


415 


larval  skin.  A  few  are  enclosed  in  cocoons.  When  the 
pupa  state  is  passed  within  the  last  larval  skin  the  body  of 
the  pupa  separates  from  the  larval  skin  more  or  less  com- 
pletely;  but  the  larval  skin  is  not  broken  till  the  adult  fly 
is  ready  to  emerge.  In  this  case  the  larval  skin,  which 
serves  as  a  cocoon,  is  termed  a  puparium  (pu-pa'ri-um).  In 
some  families  the  puparium  retains  the  form  of  the  larva ; 
in  others  the  body  of  the 
larva  shortens,  assuming  a 
more  or  less  barrel-shaped 
form  (Fig.  483,  2),  before 
the  change  to  a  pupa  takes 
place. 

This  is  a  large  order, 
both  in  number  of  species 
and  individuals.  The  spe- 
cies differ  much  in  habits. 
Some  are  very  annoying  to 
man.  Familiar  examples 
are  the  mosquito,  which 
attacks  his  person  ;  the 
flesh-flies,  which  infest  his 
food  ;  the  bot-flies  and  gad- 
flies that  torment  his  cat- 
tle ;  and  the  gall-gnats  that 
destroy  his  crops.  Other 
species  are  very  beneficial. 
Those  belonging  to  the 
Syrphidae,  and  to  the  sub- 
family Tachininae  of  the 
Muscidae  destroy  many  noxious  insects;  and  very  many 
species,  while  in  the  larval  state,  feed  upon  decaying  animal 
and  vegetable  matter,  thus  acting  as  scavengers. 

Although  the  habits  of  these  creatures,  which  revel  in 
all  kinds  of  filth,  are  very  disgusting,  we  cannot  help  admir- 
ing that  arrangement  by  which  a  mass  of  filth,  instead 


showing  mouth-parts  and  cephalic  spiracle: 
:b.  head  of  larva  Irom  below  ;  ic.  caudal 
spiracle  of  larva. 


416  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

being  left  to  poison  the  atmosphere,  is  transformed  into 
myriads  of  living  beings,  whose  swift  flight  and  delicate 
forms  lend  life  and  beauty  to  the  landscape. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE   DIPTERA. 

THE   STRAIGHT- SEAMED   FLIES. — Flies  in  which  the  pupa  escapes 
from    the    larval    skin    through   a    T-shaped   opening,    which    is 
formed    by  a   lengthwise   split   on   the 
back  near  the  head  end  and  a  crosswise 
split  at  the  front  end  of  this  (Fig.  484), 
FlG'  484t  or  rarely  through  a  crosswise  split  be- 

tween the  seventh  and  eighth  abdominal  segments,  adults  without 
a  frontal  lunule.*    Suborder  ORTHORRHAPHA  (Or-thor'rha-pha). 
The  Long-horned  Orthorrhapha  or  Nematocera  (Nem-a-toc'e-ra). 
Flies  with  four-  or  five-jointed  pendulous  palpi  and  with  many- 
jointed  antennae,  which  are  usually  long.     The  segments  of  the 
antennae,  except  the  basal  two,  are  similar  in  form,  and  are  more 
than    six    in   number ;    they   are    often    fringed   with   hairs  or 
bristles,  f 

*  The  frontal  lunule  is  a  small  crescent-shaped  piece  immediately  above 
the  antennae,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  second  suborder,  the  Cyclor- 
rhapha.  In  most  of  the  members  of  this  suborder  there 
is  a  suture  separating  the  lunule  from  that  part  of  the  head 
above  it,  the  frontal  suture;  and  frequently  this  suture 
extends  down  on  each  side  to  near  the  mouth  (Fig.  485). 
But  as  the  suture  is  wanting  in  several  families  of  the 
Cyclorrhapha,  it  is  often  difficult  to  determine  whether 
the  lunule  is  present  or  not.  The  following  statement 
will  enable  the  student  to  recognize  nearly  all  of  the 
members  of  the  first  suborder. 

The  suborder  Orthorrhapha  includes  : — 

All  flies  in  which  the  antennae  are  more  than  three-jointed,  not  counting 
a  bristle  or  style  borne  by  the  third  segment. 

All  flies  with  three-jointed  antennae  in  which  vein  III  is  four-branched. 

Such  of  the  flies  in  which  vein  Vila  appears  like  a  cross-vein,  or  curves 
back  towards  the  base  of  the  wing,  as  lack  the  suture  above  the  antennae. 
This  section  includes  only  a  few  Empididae  and  the  families  Dolichopodidee  and 
Lonchopteridae.  Nearly  all  of  the  flies  in  which  vein  VII2  is  of  the  form 
described  here  possess  the  suture  above  the  antennae,  and  hence  belong  to 
the  Cyclorrhapha. 

t  The  two  types  of  antennae  characteristic  of  the  Nematocera  and 
Brachycera  respectively  are  connected  by  intermediate  forms.  These 


DIPTERA.  417 

The  True  Nematocera.    The  antennae  usually  long  and  frequently 
bearing  whorls  of  long  hairs,  especially  in  the  males  ;  legs  long 
and  slender;  abdomen  usually  long  and  slender. 
The  Moth-like  Flies,  Family  PSYCHODIDJE.     p.  428. 
The  Midge-like  Flies. 

The  Crane-flies,  Family  TIPULID^E.      p.  429. 
The  Net-winged  Midges,  Family  BLEPHAROCERID^E,  p.  432. 
The  Dixa-midges,  Family  DixiD.fi.     p.  436. 
The  Mosquitoes,  Family  CULICID^:.    p.  437. 
The  Midges,  Family  CHIRONOMID^E.     p.  440. 
The  Fungus-gnats,  Family  MYCETOPHILID^E.     p.  442. 
The  Gall-gnats,  Family  CECIDOMYIIDJE.     p.  444. 
The  Anomalous  Nematocera.      The  antennae  are  composed   of 
many  segments,  but  are  shorter  than  the  thorax,  and  without 
whorls  of  long  hairs.     The  segments  of  the  antennae  are  short 
and  broad  and  closely  pressed  together.      Except  in  the  first 
family,  the  abdomen  is  comparatively  stout,  and  the  legs  are 
shorter  and  stouter  than  in  the  True  Nematocera. 
The  False  Crane-flies,  Family  RHYPHID^E.    p.  448. 
The  Solitary-midge,  Family  ORPHNEPHILID^E.    p.  449. 
The  March-flies,  Family  BlBlONlD^E.     p.  449. 
The  Black-flies,  Family  SIMULIID^E.     p.  451. 

The  Short -horned  Orthorrhapha  or  Brachycera  (Bra-chyc'e-ra). 
Orthorrhapha  with  one-  or  two-jointed,  porrect  palpi,  and  with 
usually  short,  three-jointed  antennae.  The  third  segment  of  the 
antenna  is  sometimes  distinctly  ringed,  showing  that  it  is  really 
composed  of  many  segments  grown  together;  and  sometimes 
the  antennae  are  four-  or  five-jointed. 

The  Anomalous  Brachycera.    The  third  segment  of  the  antenna  is 
ringed,  showing  that  it  is  composed  of  several  segments  grown 
together.     The  body  is  not  furnished  with  strong  bristles. 
The  Horse-flies,  Family  TABANID^S.    p.  453. 

occur  in  those  families  grouped  below  as  the  Anomalous  Brachycera  (see 
Figs.  489,  490,  and  492).  The  Nematocera  and  Brachycera  are  more 
sharply  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  palpi,  as  indicated  in  this  Synopsis  ; 
but  sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  see  the  palpi.  A  more  easily  seen  distinction 
is  presented  by  the  venation  of  the  wings.  In  the  Anomalous  Brachycera 
cell  V»  is  divided  by  a  cross-vein  and  cell  VIII  is  closed  before  the  margin  of 
the  wing  or  is  greatly  narrowed  at  the  margin  of  the  wing  (see  Figs.  539, 
545,  and  551).  In  the  Nematocera  cell  VIII  is  never  closed,  and  cell  V»  is 
divided  only  in  the  Tipulidae  and  Rhyphidae,  and  in  these  families  the 
antennae  are  distinctly  composed  of  many  segments. 


41 8  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  Soldier-flies,  Family  STRATIOMYIID.E.    p.  455. 
The  Snipe-flies  (in  part),  Family  LEPTID.E.     p.  456. 
The  True  Brachycera.    The  antennae  are  usually  three-jointed, 
but  sometimes  four-  or  five-jointed;  the  third  segment  is  not 
ringed,  but  usually  bears  a  style  or  bristle.*     The  body  is 
usually  furnished  with  strong  bristles. 

True  Brachycera  with  the  empodia  pulvilliform.  Flies  in  which 
there  are  three  membranous  lobes  beneath  the  tarsal  claws 
(Fig.  495).t 

The  Snipe-flies  (in  part),  Family  LEPTID^E.    p.  456. 
The  Small-headed  Flies,  Family  ACROCERID^E.    p.  458. 
The  Tangle- veined  Flies,  Family  NEMISTRINIDJE,  p.  459. 
True  Brachycera  with  the  empodia  not  pulvilliform.     Flies  in 
which  there  are  only  two  membranous  pads  beneath  the 
tarsal  claws  (Fig.  494). 
Vein  III  of  the  wings  four-branched. 
The  Robber-flies,  Family  ASILID^E.     p.  460. 
The  Midas-flies,  Family  MIDAID^E.    p.  461. 
The  Apiocerids,  Family  APIOCERID.E.    p.  462. 
The  Bee-flies,  Family  BOMBYLID^E.     p.  463. 
The  Stiletto-flies,  Family  THEREVID^E.     p.  464. 
The  Window-flies,  Family  SCENOPINID^E.     p.  465. 
The  Dance-flies  (in  part),  Family  EMPIDID^E.     p.  466. 
Vein  III  of  the  wings  three-branched. 
The  Dance-flies  (in  part),  Family  EMPIDID^E.    p.  466. 
The  Long-legged  Flies,  Family  DOLICHOPODID^E.  p.  467. 
The  Spear-winged  Flies,  Family  LONCHOPTERID^E.    p.  469. 
THE  CIRCULAR-SEAMED  FLIES. —  Flies  in  which  the  pupa  escapes 
from  the   larval  skin   through  a  circular   orifice  made  by   push- 
ing off  the  head  end  of  it  (Fig.  486).    Adults  with   a 
frontal  lunule.     Suborder  CYCLORRHAPHA  (Cy-clor'rha- 
pfaa). 

Cyclorrhapha  without  a  frontal  suture  (ASCHIZA). 
The  Syrphus-flies,  Family  SYRPHID^E.     p.  470. 
The  Big-eyed  Flies,  Family  PIPUNCULID^E.    p.  473. 
The  Flat-footed  Flies,  Family  PLATYPEZID;E.  p.  474. 
The  Humpbacked  flies,  Family  PHORID^E.     p.  475. 

*  A  similar  type  of  antenna  is  possessed  by  the  Cyclorrhapha,  which 
were  formerly  on  this  account  included  in  the  Brachycera  ;  but  this  term  is 
now  restricted  to  the  Short-horned  Orthorrhapha. 

f  The  empodia  are  pulvilliform  in  the  Anomalous  Brachycera  also  ;  but 
that  group  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  antennae. 


DIPTERA.  419 

Cydorrhapha  with  a  frontal  suture  (SCHIZOPHORA) 
Normal  Schizophora. 

The  Thickhead-flies,  Family  CONOPID^E.     p.  476. 

The  Bot-flies,  Family  CESTRID^E.    p.  477. 

The  Muscids,  Family  MUSCID^;.     p.  479. 
The  Pupa-bearing  Flies  (PuPiPARA). 

The  Louse-flies,  Family  HIPPO BOSCIDJE.     p.  487. 

The  Bat-ticks,  Family  NYCTERIBIIDJE.     p.  489. 

The  Bee-louse,  Family  BRAULID^E.     p.  489. 

Classification  of  the  Diptera. 

(For  advanced  students.) 

In  the  following  table  for  determining  the  families  of  the  Diptera 
use  is  made  chiefly  of  characters  based  on  the  form  of  the  head,  an- 
tennae, and  wings. 

The  more  important  of  the  characters  presented  by  the  head  are 
the  presence  or  absence  of  the  frontal  lunule,  and  the  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  the  frontal  suture  when  the  lunule  is  present.  (See  page  416, 
note.)  In  those  families  that  possess  the  frontal  suture  there  exists 
a  large  bladder-like  organ,  ihe  ptilinum  (ptil'i-num),  which  is  pushed 
out  through  this  suture  when  the  adult  is  about  to  emerge  from  the 
puparium.  In  this  way  the  head  end  of  the  puparium  is  forced  off, 
making  a  large  opening  through  which  the  adult  escapes  ;  afterwards 
the  ptilinum  is  withdrawn  into  the  head.  If  a  specimen  is  captured 
soon  after  its  emergence  from  the  puparium,  there  may  be  seen  in- 
stead of  the  frontal  suture  the  bladder-like  ptilinum  projecting  from 
the  head,  immediately  above  the  antennas. 

The  form  of  the  antennae  is  of  prime  importance  in  determining 
to  what  family  a  fly  belongs.  In  the  more  generalized  families  the 
antenna  consists  of  many  segments,  which,  except  the  basal  two,  are 
similar  in  form  (Tig.  487).  Frequently  such  antennae  bear  whorls  of 
long  hairs  (Fig.  488).  In  the  more  specialized  families  there  is  a  re- 
duction in  the  number  of  segments  of  the  antenna.  This  is  brought 
about  either  by  a  more  or  less  complete  consolidation  of  the  segments 
beyond  the  second  into  a  single  segment  (Figs.  489  and  490),  or  by  a 
dwindling  of  the  terminal  segments,  so  that  they  form  merely  a  slen- 
der style  (Fig.  491)  or  bristle  (Fig.  492).  Such  a  bristle  is  termed  by 
many  writers  the  arista  (a-ris'ta).  In  most  cases  where  a  style  or 
arista  exists  it  is  borne  by  the  third  segment,  and  this  segment  is  then 
usually  greatly  enlarged.  When  the  enlargement  of  this  segment  has 
taken  place  evenly  the  style  or  arista  is  terminal ;  but  frequently  one 
part  of  the  third  segment  is  expanded  so  that  it  projects  beyond  the 


420 


THE   STUD  V  OF  INSECTS. 


insertion  of  the  arista  (Fig.  493)  ;   then  the  arista  is  said   to   be 
dorsal. 

The  legs  vary  greatly  in  length  and  in  stoutness.  The  coxae  are 
usually  long,  and  in  most  of  the  fungus-gnats  (Mycetophilidae)  they 
are  very  long.  When  pulvilli  are  developed  they  are  membranous 
pads,  one  beneath  each  tarsal  claw.  A  third  appendage,  the  empo- 
dium  (em-po'di-um),  often  exists  between  the  two  pulvilli  of  each  tar- 


FlG.   487. 


FIG.  488. 


FIG.  489. 


FIG.  490. 


FIG.  491. 


sus.  The  empodia  may  be  bristle-like,  or  tapering  (Fig.  494),  or 
membranous,  resembling  the  pulvilli  in  form  (Fig.  495) ;  in  the  last 
case  they  are  described  as  pulvilliform. 

Variations  in  the  form  and  venation  of  the  wings  afford  charac- 
ters that  are  much  used  in  the  classification  of  flies.     In  many  fami- 


F,G.  49*. 


FIG. 


FlG.  494- 


FIG.  495. 


lies  there  is  a  notch  in  the  inner  margin  of  the  wing  near  its  base 
(Fig.  496,  a  <?);  this  is  the  axillary  excision;  that  part  of  the  wing 
lying  between  the  axillary  excision  and  the  base  of  the  wing  is  the 
'eriorlobe  (Fig.  496,  /).  In  certain  families  there  is  a  membrane 
beneath  the  base  of  the  wing  and  above  the  halter  or  rudimentary 


DIPTERA.  421 

hind  wing;  this  is  the  alula  (al'u-la)  or  alulet  (al'u-let).  The  alulae 
are  well  developed  in  the  common  House-fly.  Each  alula,  in  those 
species  where  the  alulae  are  well  developed,  consists  of  two  lobes 
which  fold  over  each  other  when  the  wings  are  closed.  The  alulae 
are  called  the  tegulce  by  many  writers  on  Diptera ;  but  the  term  tegula 


FIG.  496.— Wing  of  Conops;  ae,  axillary  excision  ;  /,  posterior  lobe. 

was  first  used  in  insect  anatomy  for  the  cup-like  scale  which  covers 
the  base  of  the  wing  in  certain  insects,  as  most  Hymenoptera,  and 
should  be  restricted  to  that  use.  The  terms  alula  and  alulet  are  also 
often  misapplied,  being  used  to  designate  the  posterior  lobe  of  the 
wing. 

The  plan  of  the  venation  of  the  wings  can  be  easily  learned  by  a 
study  of  the  wing  of  Rhyphus  (Fig.  497),  which  is  very  generalized  in 
structure,  except  that  vein  III  is  only  three-branched,  while  in  cer- 
tain still  more  generalized  forms  it  is  five-branched  (e.g.,  Protoplasa, 
Fig.  504;  and  Psychoda,  Fig.  500).  In  the  figures  of  wings  in  this 
chapter  both  the  veins  and  the  cells  are  numbered.  The  numbers 
outside  of  the  margin  of  the  wing  refer  to  the  veins ;  those  within,  to 
the  cells,  except  when  otherwise  indicated  by  a  dotted  line  or  by  an 
arrow.  It  should  be  remembered  that  each  cell  bears  the  same  num- 
ber as  the  vein  that  forms  its  front  margin  when  the  wings  are  spread. 
When  a  cell  is  divided  by  a  cross- vein  the  two  parts  are  numbered 
ist  and  2d.  Thus  in  Rhyphus,  cell  V3  is  divided,  and  the  parts  are 
designated  as  the  ist  cell  V,  and  the  2d  cell  V,  (Fig.  497,  ist  V,,  2d 
Va).  A  cross-vein  is  marked  cv. 

In  the  Diptera  veins  IV  and  VI  are  not  developed.  Vein  I  ex- 
tends along  the  costal  margin  of  the  wing;  it  usually  ends  somewhere 
near  the  apex  of  the  wing;  in  Rhyphus  it  ends  at  the  tip  of  vein  Ilh+i 
(Fig.  497).  In  some  families  it  extends  entirely  around  the  wing;  it 
is  then  called  the  ambient  vein.  Vein  II  is  simple.  Vein  III  is  typi- 
cally five-branched ;  but  the  number  of  branches  is  usually  reduced  to 


422  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

four  or  to  three.  Vein  V  is  three-branched  in  the  more  generalized 
forms.  Vein  VII  is  two-branched.  Vein  VIII  is  usually  merely  a 
concave  fold  just  behind  vein  VII  and  parallel  with  that  vein ;  it  is 
represented  in  most  of  the  figures  of  wings  by  a  dotted  line.  Vein  IX 
is  usually  present;  and  sometimes  vein  XI  also  exists. 

One  of  the  most  marked  features  in  the  specialization  of  the  wings 
of  Diptera  is  a  tendency  of  the  veins  to  coalesce  from  the  margin  of 
the  wing  towards  the  base.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  wing  of  Conors 
(Fig.  496).  In  this  genus  veins  IIL+B  and  Vi+s  coalesce  at  the  mar- 
gin of  the  wing;  veins  V8  and  VII,  coalesce  for  nearly  their  entire 


FIG.  497.— Winjf  of  Rhyphus. 

length.  The  result  of  this  coalescence  is  to  cause  the  free  part  of 
vein  V,  to  appear  like  a  cross-vein  between  cells  V  and  the  ist  cell 
V».  Veins  VI Ia  and  IX  also  coalesce  at  the  margin  of  the  wing. 

In  a  few  genera  of  flies  certain  longitudinal  veins  are  bent  so  as 
to  form  a  sharp  angle,  and  from  this  angle  a  spur  is  developed.  Thus 
in  Protoplasa  there  is  a  sharp  angle  near  the  base  of  vein  III.+.  which 
bears  a  spur  (Fig.  504,  s) ;  in  Erax  a  similar  spur  is  formed  on  vein 
HI*  (F'g-  559.  s)  I  and  in  Pantarbes  this  spur  on  vein  III4  is  prolonged 
so  as  to  form  a  complete  cross- vein  dividing  cell  Ills  into  two  parts 
(F'g.  564). 

TABLE  FOR  DETERMINING  THE  FAMILIES  OF  THE  DIPTERA. 

A.  Flies  in  which  the  abdomen  is  distinctly  segmented,  and  the  two 
legs  of  each  thoracic  segment  are  not  widely  separated.     Habits 
various,  but  the  adults  do  not  live  parasitically  upon  either  birds 
or  mammals. 
B.  Antennae  consisting  of  more  than  three  segments.     (Note  that 

a  style  or  bristle  borne  by  the  third  segment  is  not  counted  as  a 

segment.) 


DIPT  ERA.  423 

C,  Antennae  consisting  of  more  than  five  distinct  segments,  the 
segments  beyond  the  second  not  consolidated;  cell  VIII  of 
the  wings  but  slightly  narrowed  at  the  margin  of  the  wing,  if 
at  all ;  palpi  usually  elongate,  and  composed  of  from  three  to 
five  segments. 

D.  Small  moth-like  flies,  with  the  body  and  wings  densely 
clothed  with  hairs  and  scales.  Wings  with  from  nine  to 
eleven  longitudinal  veins,  but  with  no  cross-veins  except 
sometimes  near  the  base  of  the  wings  (Fig.  500).  p.  428. 

PSYCHODID.*. 

DD.  Flies  that  do  not  resemble  moths  in  appearance. 

E.  Dorsum  of  thorax  with  a  distinct  V-shaped  suture  (Fig. 

503).     p.  429. TIPULID.«. 

EE.  Dorsum  of  thorax  without  a  distinct  V-shaped  suture. 
F.  Vein  V  of  the  wings  three-branched ;  cell  V,  divided 

by  a  cross-vein  (Fig.  527).     p.  448 RHYPHID/E. 

FF.  Vein  V  of  the  wings  simple  or  two-branched  ;  cell  V, 
not  divided  by  a  cross-vein. 

G.  Wings  with  a  network  of  fine  lines  near  the  outer 
and  inner  margins  in  addition  to  the  veins  (Fig.  506). 

p   433 BLEPHAROCERID/E. 

GG.  Wings  without  a  network  of  fine  lines. 

H.  The  margin  of  the  wings  and  each  of  the  wing- 
veins  fringed  with  scales  (Fig.  512).     p.  437. 


HH.  The  wing-veins  with  or  without  a  fringe  of  hairs, 
but  without  a  fringe  of  flat  scales. 

I.  Anal  veins  entirely  wanting;  vein  V  wanting  or 
at  most  represented  by  a  single  unbranched  fold 
(Fig.  522).    p.  444 CECIDOMYIID^. 

II.  Anal  veins  present  or  represented  by  folds  ;  vein 
V  present  or  at  least  represented  by  a  fold  which 
is  usually  branched. 

J.  Ocelli  present. 

K.  Antennae  shorter  than  the  thorax;  legs 
comparatively  short  and  stout ;  coxae  not  un- 
usually long,  p.  449 BIBIONID*:. 

KK.  Antennae  usually  longer  than  the  thorax  ; 
legs  slender,  and  with  greatly  elongate  coxae 

(Fig.  518).    p.  442 MYCETOPHILID*:. 

JJ.  Ocelli  absent. 

K.  Antenna  short,  not  clothed  with  long  hairs, 


424  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

and  with  most  of  the  segments  wider  than 
long  (Fig.  533) ;  wings  very  broad  (Fig.  534). 

p.  451 SIMULIID^E. 

KK.  Antennae  either  bushy,  being  densely 
clothed  with  long  hairs  or  slender  with  nar- 
row segments;  wings  narrow  or  moderately 
broad. 

L.  Wing-veins  well  developed  on  all  parts  of 
the  wing. 

M.  Vein  IIIi  ending  at  or  near  the  end  of 
the   second  third  of  the   costal   margin. 

p.  449 ORPHNEPHILID^E. 

MM.  Vein  IIIi  ending  on  the  outer  margin 

of  the  wing  (Fig.  509).     p.  436.  .DlxiD^E. 

LL.  Wing-veins  much  stouter  near  the  costal 

margin   of  the  wing  than   elsewhere  (Fig. 

517).    p.  440 CHIRONOMIDJE. 

CC.  Antennae  either  consisting  of  four  or  five  distinct  segments 
or  consisting  of  five  or  more  segments,  with  those  beyond  the 
second  more  or  less  closely  consolidated  so  as  to  appear  as  a 
single  segment  consisting  of  several  subsegments  (Figs.  489, 490, 
492,  and  537) ;  cell  VIII  closed  by  the  coalescence  of  the  tips  of 
veins  Vila  and  IX,  or  greatly  narrowed  at  the  margin  of  the 
wing  ;  palpi  rarely  elongate,  and  composed  of  from  one  to  three 
segments. 

D.  Antennae  consisting  of    four  or   five   distinct    segments ; 
empodia  wanting  or  bristle-like. 
E.  Vein  Hie  not  curved  forward  towards  the  costal  margin 

of  the  wing  (Fig.  559).    p.  460 ASILID^E. 

EE.  Vein  III5  curved  forward  towards  the  costal  margin  of 

the  wing  (Fig.  561).     p.  461 MIDAID^E. 

DD.  Antennae  consisting  of  five  or  more  segments,  but  with 

those  beyond  the  second  more  or  less  closely  consolidated  ; 

empodia  resembling  pulvilli  in  form  (Fig.  495). 

E.  The  branches  of  vein  III   crowded   together  near  the 

costal  margin  of  the  wing,  and  the  first  cell  Vs  unusually 

short  and  broad  (Fig.  545).    p.  455 STRATIOMYIID^E. 

EE.  Venation  of  wings  normal. 

F.  The  alulets  large,    p.  453 TABANID^E. 

FF.  The  alulets  small  or  wanting,    p.  456 LEPTID^E. 

BB.  Antennae  consisting  of  not  more  than  three  segments  ;  the 


DIPTERA.  425 

third  segment  either  with  or  without  a  style  or  bristle,  but  not 
divided  into  subsegments. 

C.  Antennae  consisting  apparently  of  a  single  globular  segment 
bearing  a  long  bristle  ;  wings  with  some  stout  veins  near  the 
costal  margin   and  other  weaker  ones  extending  across  the 
wing  unconnected  by  cross-veins  (Fig.  581).    p.  475.PHORID^E. 
CC.  Flies  that  do  not  present  the  type  of  venation  represented 
by  Figure  581. 

D.  Cells  V  and  first  Va  not  separated  (see  Fig.  571  for  an  ex- 
ample of  this  type). 

E.  Vein    III  with  a  knot-shaped   swelling  at  the  point  of 
separation  of  veins   III3-H   and   III«  +  S;   the  cross-vein 
1II-V  at  or  near  this  swelling;   no  suture   immediately 
above  the  antennae,    p.  467  ............  DOLICHOPODID^E. 

EE.  Vein  III  with   or  without  a  swelling  at  the  point   of 
separation   of  veins  III»  +  s  and   III4  +  &;    the  cross-vein 
III-V  more  remote  from  base  of  wing;  a  suture  immedi- 
ately above  the  antennae,    p.  479  ..............  MusciD^E. 

DD.  Cells  V  and  Va  separate. 
E.  Vein  III  four-branched. 

F.  Venation  intricate,  due  to  an  unusual  anastomosing  of 
the  veins  (Fig.  555).    p.  459  ............  NEMISTRINID^E. 

FF.  Venation  not  of  the  type  represented  by  Figure  555. 
G.  Vertex  of  head  distinctly  hollowed  out  between  the 
eyes  (Fig.  557);  eyes  never  contiguous,    p.  460. 


GG.  Vertex  of  head  not  hollowed  out  between  the  eyes  ; 
eyes  often  contiguous  in  males. 
H.  Alulets  very  large,    p.  458  ..........  ACROCERID^. 

HH.  Alulets  small  or  rudimentary. 

I.  Cell  V3  present. 

J.  Vein  III.  ending  before  the  apex  of  the  wing 
(Fig.  562).    p.  462  ................  APIOCERID^. 

JJ.  Vein  III.  not  ending  before  the  apex  of  the 
wing. 

K.  Empodia  pulvilliform,  />.,  with  three  mem- 
branous lobes  beneath  the  tarsal  claws  (Fig. 
495).    p.456  ......................  LEPTID*. 

KK.  With  only  two  membranous  lobes  beneath 
the  tarsal  claws,    p.  464  .........  THEREVID*. 

II.  Cell  V,  obliterated  by  the  coalescence  of  veins 
V,  and  VIIi. 


426  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

].  Third  segment  of  antennae  without  bristle  or 
style ;  vein  Vi  ending  at  or  before  the  apex  of 

the  wing  (Fig.  568).    p.  465 SCENOPINIDJE. 

JJ.  Third  segment  of  antennae  usually  with  bristle 
or  style ;  vein  Vi  ending  beyond  the  apex  of  the 
wing. 

K.  Vein  Vila  extending  free  to  the  margin  of 
the  wing  or  coalesced  with  vein  IX  for  a  short 

distance  (Fig.  564).    p.  463 BOMBYLID^E. 

KK.  Vein  Vila  joining  vein  IX  far  from  the 
margin  of  the  wing,  often  extending  towards 
the  base  of  the  wing  (Fig.  569).  p.  466. 

EMPIDIDJE. 

EE.  Vein  III  with  not  more  than  three  branches. 
F.  Wings  lanceolate,  and  with  no  cross-veins  except  at  the 

base  (Fig.  572).    p.  469 LONCHOPTERID;E. 

FF.  Wings  not  of  the  type  represented  by  Figure  572. 

G.  Flies  with  a  very  small  head ;  with  the  thorax  and 

abdomen  inflated,  giving  the  body  a   hunchback-like 

appearance,   and   with   the   alulets  very   large.     The 

empodiapulvilliform,  i.e.,  with  three  membranous  lobes 

beneath  the  tarsal  claws,     p.  458 ACROCERID^E. 

GG.  Head  of  ordinary  size  or  very  large  ;  form  of  thorax 
and  abdomen  various ;  alulets  either  large  or  small. 
The  empodia  not  pulvilliform,  i.e.,  only  two  membra- 
nous lobes  beneath  the  tarsal  claws. 
H.  Vein  VIIj  appearing  as  a  cross-vein  or  curved 
back  towards  the  base  of  the  wing  (Figs.  569,  588). 

I.  Antennae  with  a  terminal  style  or  arista,     p.  466. 

EMPIDID^E. 

II.  Antennas  with  a  dorsal  arista. 

J.  Proboscis  rudimentary  ;  mouth-opening  small ; 

palpi  wanting,     p.  477 CESTRID^E. 

JJ.  Proboscis  not  rudimentary  ;  palpi  present. 
K.  Head  with  a  suture  immediately  above  the 
antennae  through  which  the  ptilinum  is  pro- 
truded and  withdrawn  (Fig.  587).     p.  479. 

MUSCID^E. 
KK.  Head  without  such  suture,    p.  466. 

EMPIDID^E. 
HH.  Vein  VII3  not  coalesced  with  vein  IX  to  such  an 


DIPTERA.  427 

extent  as  to  cause  the  free  part  to  appear  like  a 
cross-vein. 

I.  Antenna  with  a  terminal  style  or  bristle. 

J.  Antenna  with  a  terminal  bristle,    p.  474. 

PLATYPEZIDjE. 

JJ.  Antenna  with  a  terminal  style. 

K.  Front  with  grooves  or  a  depression  beneath 

the  antennae,    p.  476 CONOPID^E. 

KK.  Front     convex     beneath     the     antennze. 

P-  47o SYRPHJD/E. 

II.  Antenna  with  dorsal  bristle. 

J.  Head  extremely  large,  and  with  nearly  the  en- 
tire surface  occupied   by  the  eyes    (Fig.  577). 

P-  473 PIPUNCULIDJE. 

JJ.  Head  not  of  the  type  represented  by  Figure 
577- 

K.  Wings  with  a  vein-like  thickening,  the  spu- 
rious vein,  between  veins  III  and  V  (Fig.  574). 

p.  47° SYRPHIDVE. 

KK.  Wings  without  a  spurious  vein. 
L.  Front  with  grooves  or  a  depression  beneath 

the  antennas,     p  476 CONOPIDJE. 

LL.  Front    convex    beneath     the    antennae. 

p.  470 SYRPHID.*. 

AA.  Flies  in  which  the  abdomen  is  indistinctly  segmented,  and  the 
two  legs  of  each  segment  are  widely  separated  by  the  broad  ster- 
num.   The  adults  live  parasitically  upon  birds,  mammals,  or  the 
Honey-bee. 
B.  Compound  eyes  present ;  wings  present  or  absent,     p.  487. 

HIPPOBOSCID^E. 

BB.  Both  compound  eyes  and  wings  absent. 
C.  Halteres  present;   tarsal  claws  of   ordinary   form.     Adults 

parasite  upon  bats.     p.  489 NYCTERIBIID,E. 

CC.  Halteres  absent ;  last  segment  of  tarsus  with  a  pair  of  comb- 
like  appendages,    p.  489 BRAULID^:. 

Suborder  ORTHORRHAPHA  (Or-thor'rha-pha). 
The  Straight-seamed  Flies. 

To  this  suborder  belong  those  families  of  flies  in  which 
the  pupa  escapes  from  the  larval  skin  through  a  T-shaped 


428 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


opening,  which  is  formed  by  a  lengthwise  split  on  the  back 
near  the  head-end  and  a  crosswise  split  at  the  front  end  of 
this  (Fig.  498).     In  a  few  members 
of  this  suborder  (i.e.,  some  of   the 
Cecidomyiidae)    the     pupa    escapes 
FlG-  <98.  through   a   crosswise  split  between 

the  seventh  and  eighth  abdominal  segments.  The  pupae 
are  usually  either  naked  or  enclosed  in  the  last  larval  skin, 
the  puparium  ;  but  the  pupae  of  some  of  the  gall-gnats, 
Cecidomyiidae,  are  enclosed  in  cocoons.  The  adult  flies  do 
not  possess  a  frontal  lunule.  See  footnote  page  416. 


Family  PSYCHODID^;  (Psy-chod'i-dae). 
The  Moth-like  Flies. 

There  may  be  found  frequently  upon  windows  and  on 
the  lower  surface  of  the  foliage  of  trees  small  flies  which 
have  the  body  and  wings  densely  clothed  with 
hair  and  which  resemble  tiny  moths  in  appear- 
ance.    The  wings  are  broad,  and  when  at  rest 
slope  at  the  sides  in  a  roof-like  manner  or  are 
held  horizontally  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the    FlG  499._A 
insect  a  triangular  outline  (Fig.  499).  moth-iike  fly. 

The  moth-like  appearance  of  these  insects  is  sufficient  to 
distinguish  them  from  all  other  flies.     The  venation  of  the 


Vila 
FIG.  500.— Wins  of  a  moth-like  fly. 


DIPTEKA.  429 

wings  (Fig.  500)  is  also  very  peculiar.  All  of  the  longitu- 
dinal veins  separate  near  the  base  of  the  wing  except  veins 
III,  and  III,  and  veins  V,  and  Va.  In  some  forms  veins 
III4  and  III,  are  distinct,  as  shown  in  the  figure;  in  others 
they  coalesce  completely,  so  that  radius  is  only  four-branched. 
In  this  case  there  is  only  a  single  vein  between  the  two 
forked  veins. 

The  antennae  are  long  and  slender,  and  are  clothed  with 
whorls  of  hairs  (Fig.  501).  Those  of  the  male  are  longer; 
and  in  the  species  figured  the  two 
basal  segments  are  clothed  with  scales 
like  those  of  the  Lepidoptera.  Scales 
of  this  form  occur  also  on  the  wings, 
palpi,  and  legs  of  certain  species. 

Only  a  few  of  the  American  species 
have  been  described  ;  these  have  been 

FIG.    501.  — Antennae    of    Psy- 

placed   in    the   genus  Psyclwda ;    the    <*&££££«££ 
early  stages   of   none  of   them   have    g£«Mta3TSd;ti£  *J 
been  observed.     The  larvae  of  some    enlarged. 
European  species  inhabit  cow-dung,  and  others  live  in  water. 
They  have  a  pair  of  spiracles  at  each  end  of  the  body. 

As  regards  the  structure  of  their  wings  these  flies  are  very  distinct 
from  all  others.  The  pre-anal  area,  that  part  lying  in  front  of  vein 
VIII.  presents  an  extremely  generalized  form.  This  is  shown  by  the 
outline  of  the  wing  (a  line  drawn  lengthwise  of  the  wing  through  its 
centre  will  divide  it  into  two  similar  parts),  the  small  extent  to  which 
the  veins  coalesce,  and  the  fact  that  the  maximum  number  of  veins  is 
present.  On  the  other  hand,  the  anal  area  is  so  reduced  as  to  be 
barely  represented.  The  dotted  line  in  the  figure  represents  the 
position  of  what  is  left  of  the  anal  furrow  (i.e.,  vein  VIII). 

Family  TlPULlD^E  (Ti-pu'li-dae). 

The  Crane-flies. 

The  crane-flies  are  mosquito-like  in  form  ;  but  they  are 
usually  very  much  larger  than  mosquitoes.  The  body  is 
long  and  slender,  the  wings  narrow,  and  the  legs  very 


430 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


long  (Fig.  502).  This  family  includes  the  larger  members 
of  that  series  of  flies  in  which  the  antennae  are  thread-like ; 
but  it  also  includes  some  species  that  are  not  larger  than 
certain  mosquitoes.  The  most  distinctive  feature  of  crane- 
flies  is  the  presence  of  a  transverse  V-shaped  suture  on 
the  dorsal  side  of  the  mesothorax  (Fig.  503). 


a  crane- 
fly  showing 
the  V-shaped 
suture. 


FIG.  502. — A  crane-fly. 

The  wings  are  long  and  narrow.  In  a  few  genera  vein 
III  is  five-branched,  and  the  branches  separate  near  the 
middle  of  the  wing  (Fig.  504) ;  but  usually  the  number  of 


FIG.  504.—  Wing  of  Protofilasa  fiichii.     (After  Osten  Sacken.) 

branches  is  reduced  to  three  or  four;  and  those  that  remain 
distinct  separate  near  the  apex  of  the  wing  (Fig.  505).  Cell 
V,  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  cross-vein  ;  the  branches  of 
vein  VII  like  those  of  vein  III  separate  near  the  distal  end 
of  the  wing ;  and  the  margin  of  the  wing  is  strengthened  by 
an  ambient  vein. 


DIPTERA.  431 

The  structure  of  the  ovipositor  is  also  quite  distinctive, 
being  composed  of  two  pairs  of  long,  horny,  pointed  valves. 
These  are  fitted  for  depositing  the  eggs  in  the  ground,  or  in 
other  firm  substances. 

The  larvae  of  most  species  live  in  the  ground ;  and  some 
of  them  destroy  grass  and  grain  by  gnawing  the  young 
plants  just  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Those  of  other 
species  live  in  various  situations,  as  in  water,  in  decaying 
wood,  in  fungi,  and  even  on  the  leaves  of  plants.  The  larvae 


FIG.  sos—Wing  of  Tipula  abdominatts. 

of  this  family  have  either  a  single  pair  of  spiracles  situated 
at  the  hind  end  of  the  body,  or  they  have  two  pairs,  one 
at  each  end  of  the  body.  The  pupae  are  not  enclosed  in 
a  puparium,  and  bear  transverse  rows  of  hairs,  bristles,  or 
spines,  which  enable  them  to  work  their  way  out  from  the 
earth  when  about  to  transform. 

Crane-flies  often  appear  in  great  numbers,  flying  over 
meadows  and  pastures.  But  in  most  cases  their  power  of 
flight  does  not  seem  to  be  well  developed ;  for  they  fly 
slowly,  and  only  a  short  distance  at  a  time.  Some  species, 
however,  sustain  themselves  in  the  air  for  long  periods. 
This  is  especially  true  of  some  of  the  smaller  species  ;  which 
often  collect  in  swarms  at  twilight,  forming  a  small  cloud, 
and  dancing  up  and  down  like  some  of  the  midges.  But 
even  with  these  the  flight  is  poor  compared  with  that  of  the 
more  specialized  families,  as  the  Syrphidae  or  the  Muscidse. 
Their  ability  to  walk  is  also  poor ;  for  they  use  their  long 
legs  awkwardly,  as  if  they  were  in  the  way.  This  has  sug- 
gested the  rhyme :  — 

"  My  six  long  legs,  all  here  and  there, 
Oppress  my  bosom  with  despair." 


432  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS, 

Not  only  are  the  legs  of  crane-flies  poorly  fitted  for  loco, 
motion,  but  they  are  so  feebly  attached  to  the  body  that 
they  are  easily  broken  off ;  however,  the  loss  of  a  few  legs 
does  not  seem  to  be  a  serious  matter  to  one  of  these  insects. 
Yet  from  what  we  know  of  the  laws  of  development  we  are 
forced  to  believe  that  the  peculiar  form  of  the  legs  has  been 
attained  in  order  to  fit  them  to  perform  better  some  impor- 
tant function.  It  may  be  that  the  great  length  of  the  legs 
is  correlated  with  the  unusual  length  of  the  abdomen  and 
ovipositor,  and  enables  the  insect  to  oviposit  in  a  better 
manner  than  would  otherwise  be  possible.  When  about  to 
lay  her  eggs,  the  female  stands  nearly  upright  and,  bringing 
the  abdomen  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
thrusts  the  ovipositor  into  the  ground.  After  placing  one 
or  two  eggs  in  the  hole  thus  made,  she  moves  forward  a  few 
steps  and  repeats  the  operation. 

Family  BLEPHAROCERID^;  (Bleph-a-ro-cer'i-dae). 
The  Net-winged  Midges. 

The  net-winged  midges  are  extremely  remarkable  in- 
sects ;  for  in  certain  respects  the  structure  of  the  adults  is 
very  peculiar,  and  the  larvae  appear  much  more  like  Crusta- 
ceans than  like  Insects. 

The  adults  are  mosquito-like  in  form  ;  but  they  differ 
from  all  other  insects  in  having  the  wings  marked  by  a  net- 
work of  fine  lines  which  extend  in  various  directions  and 
are  not  influenced  at  all  by  the  veins  of  the  wing  (Fig.  506) ; 
they  are,  however,  quite  constant  in  their  position  in  the 
species  that  we  have  studied. 

When  a  wing  is  examined  with  a  microscope,  the  fine 
lines  are  seen  to  be  slender  thickenings  extending  along  the 
courses  of  slight  folds  in  the  wing.  The  significance  of 
these  folds  is  evident  when  a  net-winged  midge  is  observed 
m  the  act  of  issuing  from  its  pupa-skin.  When  the  wing  is 
first  pulled  out  of  the  wing-sheath  of  the  pupa,  that  part  of 


DIPTERA.  433 

it  which  is  crossed  by  the  fine  lines  is  plaited  somewhat  like 
a  fan  and  folded  over  the  other  portion.  By  this  means  the 
wing,  which  is  fully  developed  before  the  adult  emerges,  is 
packed  within  the  wing-sheath  of  the  pupa,  which  is  much 
shorter  and  narrower  than  the  wing.  When  the  wing  is 


FIG.  506.— Wing  of  Blepharocera. 

finally  unfolded,  it  does  not  become  perfectly  flat,  but 
slight,  alternating  elevations  and  depressions  remain,  show- 
ing the  positions  of  the  former  folds,  a  permanent  record  of 
the  unique  history  of  the  wings  of  these  insects. 

Ordinarily  the  wings  of  insects,  while  still  in  the  wing- 
sheaths  of  the  pupa,  are  neither  longer  nor  wider  than  the 
wing-sheaths,  but  expand  after  the  adult  emerges  from  the 
pupa  skin.  Usually  it  takes  considerable  time  for  the 
wings  to  expand  and  become  fit  for  flight ;  and  during  this 
interval  the  insect  is  in  an  almost  helpless  condition.  In 
certain  caddice-flies  that  emerge  from  swiftly-flowing  water, 
the  time  required  for  the  expansion  of  the  wings  has  been 
reduced  to  the  minimum  (see  pp.  189,  190).  In  the  net- 
winged  midges,  which  also  emerge  from  swiftly-flowing 
water,  the  difficulty  is  met  by  the  wings  reaching  their  full 
development  before  the  adult  leaves  the  pupa-skin.  It  is 
only  necessary  when  the  adult  emerges  from  the  water  that 
it  should  unfold  its  wings  to  be  ready  for  flight. 

The  members  of  this  family  have  three  simple  eyes. 
Each  compound  eye  is  divided  into  two  parts:  an  upper 
half,  in  which  the  ocelli  are  very  large;  and  a  lower  half,  in 


434 


THE  STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


which  the  ocelli  are  small.  The  antennae  are  thread-like, 
but  are  not  furnished  with  whorls  of  long  hairs  (Fig.  507). 
The  legs  are  very  long.  On  the  dorsum  of  the  meso- 
thorax  there  is  on  each  side,  beginning  just  in  front 
of  the  base  of  the  wing,  a  well-marked  suture,  like 
that  of  the  crane-flies ;  but  the  two  do  not  meet  so 
as  to  form  a  continuous  V-shaped  suture  as  in  the 
Tipulidae. 

In  some  species  at  least  there  are  two  kinds  of 
females,  which  differ  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  the 
FIG.  s<>7.  head.     These  two   forms  also  differ  in  habits,  one 
being  blood-sucking,  the  other  feeding  upon  nectar. 
The  adults  may  be  found  resting  on  the  foliage  of  shrubs 
and  trees  on  the  margins  of  mountain-brooks,  or  dancing  in 
the  spray  of  waterfalls. 

The  immature  forms  of  these  insects  are  even  more 
wonderful  than  are  the  adults.  The  larvae  live  in  water,  in 
swiftly-flowing  streams,  where  the  water  flows  swiftest.  We 
have  observed  the  transformations  of  Blepharocera  capitata 
(Bleph-a-roc'e-ra  cap-i-ta'ta),  which  is  abundant  in  some  of 
the  ravines  near  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

The  larvae  of  this  species  are  readily  seen  on  account  of 
their  black  color,  and  are  apt  to  attract  attention  on  account 
of  their  strange  form  (Fig.  c  b  a 

508,  a).  At  first  sight  the  body 
appears  to  consist  of  only  seven 
segments,  but  careful  examina- 
tion reveals  the  presence  of 
smaller  segments  alternating 
with  these.  Each  of  the  larger 
segments  except  the  last  bears 
a  pair  of  conical,  leg-like  appen- 
dages. On  the  ventral  side  of 
the  body  (Fig.  508,  d)  each  of 
the  seven  larger  segments  except  the  last  bears  a  sucker, 
the  cavity  of  which  extends  far  into  the  body,  and  each 


FIG.  508. — Blepharocera  .  a,  larva,  dor- 
sal view  ;  6,  larva,  ventral  view  ;  c9 
puparium. 


DIPTERA.  435 

of  these  segments  except  the  first  bears  two  tufts  of  tracheal 
gills ;  but  those  of  the  last  segment  are  united.  The 
head,  which  forms  the  front  end  of  the  first  of  the  seven 
larger  divisions,  bears  a  pair  of  slender  antennae ;  each  of 
these  consists  of  a  very  short  basal  segment  and  two  long 
segments;  at  the  tip  of  the  last  of  these  there  is  a  pair  of 
minute  appendages  and  a  bristle.  The  suture  between  the 
head  and  the  remaining  part  of  the  first  division  is  best  seen 
on  the  ventral  side  of  the  body.  On  the  dorsal  side  a 
suture  may  be  seen  dividing  the  last  division  into  two 
segments. 

The  pupa-state  is  passed  in  the  same  place  as  the  larval. 
Like  the  larvae  the  pupae  are  very  conspicuous  on  account 
of  their  black  color,  and  are  apt  to -occur  like  the  larvae 
closely  clustered  together.  The  pupa  is  not  enclosed  in  the 
larval  skin,  and  differs  greatly  in  form  from  the  larva.  On 
the  dorsal  side  the  skin  is  hard,  forming  a  convex  scale  over 
the  body  (Fig.  508,  c] ;  and  the  thorax  bears  a  pair  of  breath- 
ing-organs ;  on  the  ventral  side  the  skin  is  very  delicate,  soft, 
and  transparent ;  so  that  the  developing  legs  and  wings  may 
be  easily  seen  when  the  insect  is  removed  from  the  rock. 
The  pupae  cling  to  the  rock  by  means  of  six  suckers,  three 
on  each  side  near  the  edge  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  abdo- 
men ;  and  so  firmly  do  they  cling  that  it  is  difficult  to  re- 
move specimens  without  breaking  them. 

We  have  watched  the  midges  emerge  from  their  pupa- 
skins  and  escape  from  the  water.  The  pupae  occurred  in 
groups  so  as  to  form  black  patches  on  the  rocks.  Each  one 
was  resting  with  its  head  down  stream.  Each  midge  on 
emerging  forced  its  way  out  through  a  transverse  rent  be- 
tween the  thorax  and  abdomen.  It  then  worked  its  body 
out  slowly,  and  in  spite  of  the  swift  current  held  it  vertical. 
The  water  covering  the  patch  of  pupae  varied  from  one 
fourth  to  one  half  inch  in  depth.  In  the  shallower  parts 
the  adult  had  no  trouble  in  working  its  way  to  the  surface 
still  clinging  to  the  pupa-skin  by  its  very  long  hind  legs. 


436  THE  STUD  Y  OF  JNSECTS. 

While  still  anchored  by  its  legs  the  midge  rests  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  for  one  or  two  seconds  and  unfolds  its 
wings;  then  freeing  its  legs  it  takes  flight.  The  adults 
emerging  from  the  deeper  water  were  swept  away  by  the 
current  before  they  had  a  chance  to  take  wing.  The  time 
required  for  a  midge  to  work  its  way  out  of  the  pupa-skin 
varied  from  three  to  five  minutes. 


Family  Dixm^:  (Dix'i-dae). 

The  Dixar-midges. 

These  midges  closely  resemble  mosquitoes  in  size  and 
form  ;  but  they  are  easily  distinguished  by  the  venation  of 
their  wings  (Fig.  509). 


FIG.  509.— Wing  of  Dixa. 

The  wing-veins  are  not  furnished  with  scales,  and  are 
distinct  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  wing ;  vein  I  is  pro- 
longed into  an  ambient  vein ;  vein  II  is  well 
developed,  but  is  short,  ending  in  the  margin  of 
the  wing  near  its  middle,  ana  before  the  first  fork 
of  vein  III ;  vein  III  is  four-branched  ;  vein  V  is 
two-branched ;  cell  Va  is  not  divided  by  a  cross- 
vein  ;  and  vein  III,  extends  parallel  to  the  mar- 
gin of  the  wing  to  a  point  on  the  outer  end 
of  the  wing.  The  antennae  (Fig.  510)  are  six- 
teen-jointed,  and  differ  but  slightly  in  the  two 
sexes  ;  the  legs  are  very  long  and  slender  ;  and 
he  caudal  end  of  the  abdomen  of  the  male  is  FlG  5IO 
enlarged. 


DIPTERA.  437 

The  family  includes  only  a  single  genus,  Dixa. 
We  have  found  the  adult  midges  common  on  rank  her- 
bage, growing  in  a  swampy  place,  in  a  shady  forest. 

Family  CULICID^:  (Cu-lic'i-dae). 

The  Mosquitoes. 

The  form  of  mosquitoes  is  so  well  known  that  it  would 
be  unnecessary  to  characterize  the  Culicidae  were  it  not 
that  there  are  certain  mosquito-like  insects  that  are  liable 
to  be  mistaken  for  members  of  this  family. 

The  mosquitoes  are  small  flies,  with  the  abdomen  long 
and  slender,  the  wings  narrow,  the  antennae 
plumose  in  the  males  (Fig.  5 1 1),  and  usu- 
ally  with  a  long,  slender,  but  firm  proboscis. 
The  thorax  lacks  the  transverse  V-shaped 
su-ture  characteristic  of  the  crane-flies  ;  and 
vein  V  of  the  wings   is  only  two-branched 
(Fig.  512):     But  the  most  distinctive  feature  Fl£  SIuIit" 
of  mosquitoes  is  a  fringe  of  scale-like  hairs   /"•  '«"">«• 
on  the  margin  of  the  wing  and  also,  in  all  known  American 
forms,  on  each  of  the  wing-veins. 


IX 

FIG.  512.—  Wing  of  Culex. 


The  larvae  of  mosquitoes,  so  far  as  they  are  known,  are 
aquatic.  But  it  is  probable  that  some  species  breed  in  the 
ground,  for  mosquitoes  occur  in  arid  regions  far  from  water. 

The  transformations  of  those  species  with  aquatic  larvae 
are  easily  observed.  The  immature  forms  may  be  found  in 


438  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

pools  of  stagnant  water,   in  watering-troughs,  and  in  ex- 
posed receptacles  of  rain-water. 

The  long,  slender  eggs  are  laid  side  by  side  in  a  boat- 
shaped  mass,  on  the  surface  of  the  water  (Fig.  513).     They 


FIG.  513.— A  glass  of  water  containing  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupae  of  mosquitoes. 

hatch  in  a  few  days,  and  the  larvae  escape  from  the  lower 
ends  into  the  water.  The  larvae  are  well  known,  and  are 
commonly  called  "  wigglers,"  a  name  suggested  by  their 
wriggling  motion  as  they  swim  through  the  water.  The 
larva  (Fig.  514,  a)  has  a  large  head  and 
thorax  and  a  slender  abdomen.  The 
next  to  the  last  abdominal  segment 
bears  a  breathing-tube  ;  and  when  the 
larva  is  at  rest  it  hangs  head  down- 
ward in  the  water,  with  the  opening  of 
this  tube  at  the  surface  (Fig.  513).  At 
the  end  of  this  tube  there  is  a  rosette 
of  plate-like  lobes  (Fig.  515,  a),  which, 
floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  keeps  the  larva  in  posi- 
tion when  at  rest.  The  larva  grows  rapidly,  and  after  a  few 


DIPTERA.  439 

molts  changes  into  a  club-shaped  pupa,  the  head  and  thorax 
being  greatly  enlarged  (5 14,  b}.  With  this  transformation  a 
remarkable  change  takes  place  in  the  respi- 
ratory system.  There  are  now  two  breath- 
ing-tubes, and  these  are  borne  by  the 
thorax.  One  of  these  tubes  is  represented 
greatly  enlarged  by  Figure  5 1 5,  #.  At  the 
tail-end  of  the  body  there  is  a  pair  of  leaf- 
like  appendages,  with  which  the  insect  breathing-tube  of  larva; 

-  b,     breathing-tube       of 

swims ;  for  the  pupae  of  mosquitoes,  and  PuPa- 
also  of  certain  midges,  differ  from  the  pupae  of  other  insects 
in  being  active.  The  pupa  state  lasts  only  a  few  days  ;  then 
the  skin  splits  down  the  back,  and  the  winged  mosquito 
carefully  works  itself  out  and  cautiously  balances  itself  on 
the  cast  skin,  using  it  as  a  raft,  until  its  wings  are  hardened 
so  that  it  can  fly  away. 

The  larvae  of  mosquitoes  are  doubtless  beneficial  insects, 
for  they  feed  on  decaying  matter  in  water,  and  thus  act  as 
scavengers  ;  but  the  annoyance  caused  by  the  bites  of  the 
adult  females  more  than  counterbalances  this  good.  The 
males  of  mosquitoes  neither  sing  nor  suck  blood;*  they 
are  said  to  feed  on  the  sweets  of  flowers. 

These  pests  can  be  repelled  by  smoke  and  by  certain 
strong-smelling  substances.  In  regions  where  they  abound 
it  is  customary  to  build  smudges  in  the  evening  for  this 
purpose  ;  and  sportsmen  anoint  their  faces  and  hands  with 
aromatic  ointments.  The  best  of  these  is  made  of  mutton 
tallow  scented  with  camphor  and  oil  of  pennyroyal;  a  mix- 
ture of  oil  of  tar  and  oil  of  pennyroyal  is  also  used. 

It  often  happens  that  plagues  of  these  pests  are  bred  in 
receptacles  of  rain-water  standing  near  dwellings ;  such  re- 
ceptacles should  not  be  left  open  unnecessarily.  When  the 
breeding-places  are  ponds  of  limited  extent  the  larvae  and 

*E.  Ficalbi  states  that  he  has  observed  two  Italian  species  in  which  both 
sexes  suck  blood.     Bull.  Soc.  Ent.  Ital.  1889,  p.  25. 


440 


THE  STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


pupae  can  be  destroyed  by  pouring  a  small  quantity  of  kero- 
sene on  the  water  ;  this  method  of  destroying  them  was  first 
suggested  by  Mr.  L.  O.  Howard. 

Family  CHIRONOMID^E  (Chir-o-nom'i-dae). 
The  Midges. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  more  or  less  mosquito- 
like  in  form.  The  abdomen  is  usually 
long  and  slender ;  the  wings  narrow  ;  the 
legs  long  and  delicate  ;  and  the  antennae, 
especially  in  the  males,  strongly  plumose 
(Fig.  516).  In  fact  many  of  these  insects 
are  commonly  mistaken  for  mosquitoes; 
but  only  a  few  of  them  can  bite,  the 

FIG.      316.— Antennae      of  ,          ,      .          .  . 

chironomus.  /,  female ;  greater  number  being  harmless. 

The  midges  are  most  easily  distin- 
guished from  mosquitoes  by  the  structure  of  the  wings 
(Fig.  517)-  These  are  furnished  with  fewer  and  usually  less 


FIG.  517. — Wing  of  Chironomus. 

distinct  veins;  and  the  veins,  although  sometimes  hairy,  are 
not  fringed  with  scale-like  hairs.  There  is  a  marked  contrast 
between  the  stouter  veins  near  the  costal  border  of  the  wing 
and  those  on  the  other  parts  of  the  wing,  which  seem  to  be 
fading  out.  The  costal  vein  is  not  prolonged  into  an  am- 
bient vein,  beyond  the  apex  of  the  wing. 

The  name  midge  has  been  used  in  an  indefinite  way, 
some  writers  applying  it  to  any  minute  fly.  It  is  much 
better,  however,  to  restrict  it  to  members  of  this  family 


DIPTERA.  441 

except  where  it  has  become  firmly  established  as  a  part  of  a 
specific  name.  The  Wheat-midge  and  the  Clover-seed 
Midge  are  examples  of  names  of  this  kind  ;  it  would  not  be 
wise  to  attempt  to  change  these  names,  although  the  insects 
they  represent  belong  to  the  Gall-gnat  family,  and  hence  are 
not  true  midges. 

Midges  often  appear  in  large  swarms,  dancing  in  the  air, 
especially  towards  the  close  of  day.  Professor  Williston 
states  that,  over  meadows  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  he  has 
seen  them  rise  at  nightfall  in  most  incredible  numbers,  pro- 
ducing a  buzzing  or  humming  noise  like  that  of  a  distant 
waterfall,  and  audible  for  a  considerable  distance. 

The  larvae  are  either  aquatic  or  terrestrial;  they  have 
two  pairs  of  spiracles,  one  at  each  end  of  the  body,  or  are 
furnished  with  tracheal  gills.  Some  of  the  pupae  are  free 
and  active,  others  are  quiescent ;  some  of  the  latter  remain 
partially  enclosed  in  the  split  larval  skin. 

Many  of  our  species  belong  to  the  genus  Chironomus 
(Chi-ron'o-mus).  These  are  mosquito-like  in  form,  but  vary 
greatly  in  size,  some  being  smaller  than  our  common  mos- 
quitoes, and  others  much  larger.  The  head  is  small,  the 
snout,  comparatively  short,  and  the  antennae  of  the  males 
very  bushy.  The  larvae  so  far  as  they  are  known  are  aquatic. 
Many  of  them  are  blood-red  in  color ;  and  as  they  live  in 
standing  water  they  are  sometimes  found  in  vessels  contain- 
ing rain-water,  where  they  appear  like  bits  of  animated  red 
thread.  The  pupae  of  this  genus,  like  those  of  mosquitoes, 
are  active. 

To  the  genus  Ceratopogon  (Cer-a-to-po'gon)  belong  the 
small  midges  commonly  known  as  punkies.  Of  these  there 
are  many  species,  which  vary  greatly  in  size  and  color. 
The  body  and  legs  are  not  as  slender  as  in  the  preceding 
genus,  and  consequently  the  insects  appear  much  less  mos- 
quito-like. Certain  minute  species  are  sometimes  very 
abundant,  and  extremely  annoying  on  account  of  their  bites. 
We  have  found  them  exceeding  troublesome  in  the  Adiron- 


442  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS, 

dack  Mountains.  The  larvae  live  under  the  bark  of  decaying 
branches,  under  fallen  leaves,  and  in  sap  flowing  from 
wounded  trees. 

Family  MYCETOPHILID^:  (My-cet-o-phil'i-dse). 

The  Fungus-gnats. 

These  flies  are  of  medium  or  small  size,  and  more  or  less 
mosquito-like  in  form.  They  are  most 
easily  recognized  by  the  great  length 
of  the  coxae  (Fig.  518,  c\  and  the 
fact  that  all  the  tibiae  are  furnished 
with  spurs.  They  also  differ  from 
the  closely-allied  families  in  lacking, 
as  a  rule,  whorls  of  hairs  on  the  an- 
tennae of  the  males  (Fig.  519),  and 
in  possessing  ocelli. 

At  first  sight  considerable  varia- 
FiG.5i9.      tjon  seems  to  exjst  jn  tjie  venation 

of  the  wings  as  shown  in  the  three  wings  represented  in 
Figure  520 ;  but  in  reality  the  variations  are  comparatively 
slight.  Vein  I  extends  along  the  margin  of  the  wing  to  the 
end  of  vein  III4+6.  Vein  II  varies  in  length.  Vein  III  pre- 
serves three  branches  in  the  more  generalized  form  (Fig. 
520,0);  in  some  genera  veins  III,  and  IIIs+3  coalesce  from 
the  apex  of  the  wing  backward  for  a  greater  or  less  distance 
so  that  the  base  of  vein  111.,+,,  appears  like  a  cross  vein  (Fig. 
520,  fr);  this  coalescence  may  be  complete, in  which  case  vein 
III  is  only  two-branched  (Fig.  520,  c).  Vein  V  is  also 
two-branched.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  cross-vein 
III-V  extends  more  or  less  obliquely  or  even  lengthwise  of 
the  wing;  while  the  base  of  vein  III4+6  may  extend  trans- 
versely, and  then  is  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  a  cross- vein 
(Fig.  520,  b,  c). 

The  flies  are  often  found  in  great  numbers  on  fungi  and 
in  damp  places  where  there  is  decaying  vegetable  matter. 
They  are  active,  and  leap  as  well  as  fly. 


D1PTERA. 


443 


HU+3 


The  larvae  are  gregarious,  and  live  in  fungi  and  in  decay- 
ing vegetable  matter.  They  may  be  found  in  the  fungi 
growing  on  logs  and 
trees,  in  the  vegeta- 
ble mould  among 
dead  leaves,  under 
bark,  and  sometimes 
in  cow-dung.  They 
have  eight  pairs  of 
spiracles.  One  spe- 
cies, Sciara  mail 
(Sci'a-ra  ma'li),  feeds 
on  ripe  apples,  es- 
pecially those  that 
have  been  previously 
perforated  by  the 
Codlin-moth. 

In  this  family  the 
larva  has  a  distinct 
head.  The  pupa  is 
not  enclosed  in  the 
skin  of  the  larva ; 
but  in  some  genera1 
the  transformations 
are  undergone  in  a  delicate  cocoon. 

The  larvae  of  some  species  of  the  genus  Sciara  often 
attract  attention  on  account  of  a  strange  habit  they  have  of 
sticking  together  in  dense  patches.  Such  assemblages  of 
larvae  are  frequently  found  under  the  bark  of  trees.  But 
what  is  more  remarkable  is  the  fact  that  when  the  larvae  are 
about  to  change  to  pupae  an  assemblage  of  this  kind  will 
march  over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  presenting  the  appear- 
ance of  a  serpent-like  animal.  Such  a  congregation  is  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  a  Sciara-army-worm.  Examples  have 
been  described  that  were  four  or  five  inches  wide  and  ten  or 
twelve  feet  long,  and  in  which  the  larvae  were  piled  up  from 


520. — Wings  of  fungus-gnats.     (The  drawings  are 
after  Winnertz  ;  the  lettering  is  original.) 


444 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


four  to  six  deep.    The  larvae  crawl  over  each  other  so  that 
the  column  advances  about  an  inch  a  minute. 

Family  CECIDOMYIID^E  (Cec-i-do-my-i'i-dae). 
The  Gall-gnats. 

The   gall-gnats    are   minute   flies  which  are  extremely 
delicate  in  structure.     The  body  and  wings  are  clothed  with 
long  hairs,  which  are  easily  rubbed  off.     The 
antennae  are  long,  sometimes  very  long,  and 
usually  with  a  whorl  of  hairs  on  each  seg- 
ment (Fig.  521);  the  legs  are  slender  and 
quite  long,  but  the  coxae   are  not  greatly 
elongate,  and  the  tibiae  are  without  spurs  ; 
the  wing-veins  (Fig.  522)  are  greatly  reduced 
in  number ;   the  anal   veins   being  entirely 
wanting,   and   vein   V   wanting   or   merely 
FIG.  s«-  —  Antennae  represented  by  a  slight,  unbranched  fold, 
male;  /.    female',         To  this   family   belong  the   smallest  of 

enlarged  more  than 

that  of  the  male.  the  midge-like  flies.  On  account  of  their 
minute  size,  the  adult  flies  are  not  apt  to  attract  the  at- 
tention of  the  young  student.  But  the  larvae  of  many 


vii7 


FIG.  522.— Wing  of  gall-gnat. 

species  cause  the  growth  of  galls  on  plants ;  some  of  which 
are  sure  to  be  found  by  any  close  observer.  Other  species 
arrest  the  growth  of  the  plants  they  infest,  and  thus  cause 


DIPTERA. 


445 


very  serious  injury;  in  this  way  the  amount  of  a  crop  of 
grain  is  often  greatly  reduced. 

The  larvae  are  small  maggots,  with  nine  pairs  of  spiracles. 
Many  species  are  brightly  colored,  being  red,  pink,  yellow, 
or  orange.  In  almost  every  case  a  larva 
belonging  to  this  family  can  be  recog- 
nized as  such  by  the  presence  of  a  horny 
piece  on  the  lower  side  of  the  body,  be- 
tween the  second  and  third  segments  (Fig.  FIG.  523.  —  Head-end  of 

.         _,,  .         .  .          11     j  .  i       i_  ,1  larva       showing      the 

523).     This  piece  is  called  the  breast-bone,     breast-bone. 

Its  homology  and  use  have  not  been  definitely  determined. 

The  different  species  vary  as  to  the  method  of  under- 
going their  transformation  ;  in  some  the  pupa  is  naked  ;  in 
others  the  pupa  is  enclosed  in  the  dried  skin  of  the  larva ; 
and  in  still  others  it  is  enclosed  in  a  delicate  cocoon. 

One  of  the  most  common  and  conspicuous  of  the  galls 
made  by  gall-gnats  is  the  Pine-cone  Willow-gall  (Fig.  524). 

This  often  occurs  in 
great  abundance  on  the 
tips  of  twigs  of  the 
Heart  -  leaved  Willow 
(Salix  cordatd).  The 
gnat  that  causes  the 
growth  of  this  gall  is 
Cecidomyia  strobiloides 
(Cec-i-do-my'i-a  strob-i- 
loi'des).  The  gall  is  a 
deformed  and  enlarged 
bud;  the  lengthening  of 
the  stem  is  checked  by 
the  injury  caused  by 
the  larva;  but  leaves 

FIG.  524.— The  Pine-cone  Willow-gall.  Continue      to     be     devel- 

oped  which  results  in  the  cone-shaped  growth.  The  larva 
remains  in  the  heart  of  the  gall  throughout  the  summer  and 
winter,  changing  to  a  pupa  early  in  the  spring.  The  adult 


446  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

emerges  soon  afterward,  and   lays   its    eggs  in  the  newly- 
started  buds  of  the  willow. 

There  is  a  guest  gall-gnat,  Cecidomyia  albovittata  (C.  al- 
bo-vit-ta'ta),  which  breeds  in  large  numbers  between  the 
leaves  composing  the  Pine-cone  Willow-gall.  The  larvae  of 
this  gnat  do  not  seem  to  interfere  in  any  way  with  the 
development  of  their  host,  there  being  abundant  food  in  the 
gall  both  for  the  owner  of  the  gall  and  for  its  numerous 
guests. 

The  Clover-leaf  Midge,  Cecidomyia  trifolii(C.  tri-fo'li-i). — 
The  leaflets  of  white  clover  are  sometimes  infested  by  white 

or  orange-colored  mag- 
gots which  fold  the  two 
halves  of  the  leaflet 
together.  From  one  to 
twenty  of  these  larvae 
may  be  found  in  a  single 
leaflet.  When  f  u  1 1- 
grown  the  larvae  make 
.  in.  (From  the  Author's  -cocoons,  and  undergo 
their  transformations 
within  the  folded  leaflet.  In  Figure  525  an  infested  leaf 
containing  cocoons  is  represented  natural  size,  also  a  larva 
and  an  adult  gnat,  greatly  enlarged. 

The  Clover-seed  Midge,  Cecidomyia  leguminicola  (C.  le- 
gu-mi-nic'o-la),  is  a  much  more  serious  pest  of  clover.  This 
infests  both  red  and  white  clover.  The  larvae  live  in  the 
heads  of  the  clover  and  destroy  the  immature  seed.  When 
nil-grown  they  drop  to  the  ground,  where  they  undergo 
their  transformations.  In  some  parts  of  this  country  it  is 
impossible  to  raise  clover-seed  on  account  of  this  pest. 

The  Hessian-fly,  Cecidomyia  destructor  (C.  de-struc'tor).— 

s  is  perhaps  the  most  serious  pest  infesting  wheat  in  this 

ountry.     The  larva  lives  at  the  base  of  a  leaf  between  it 

I  the  main  stalk.     There  are  two  or  three  broods  of  this 

'sect  m  the  course  of  the  year.     The  larvae  of  the  fall  brood 


DIPTERA. 


447 


infest  the  young  wheat-plants  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
When  full-grown  each  changes  to  a  pupa  within  a  brown 
puparium,  which  resembles  a  flax-seed.  Here  they  remain 
throughout  the  winter.  In  the  spring  the  adult  gnats 
emerge  and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  sheaths  of  leaves  some  dis- 
tance above  the  ground.  The  infested  plants  are  so  weak- 
ened by  the  larva  that  they  produce  but  little  if  any  seed. 

The  Wheat-midge,  Diplosis  tritici  (Di-plo'sis  trit'i-ci). — 
This  gnat  is  also  a  very  serious  enemy  of  wheat.  It  deposits 
its  eggs  in  the  opening  flowers  of  wheat.  The  larvae  feed 
on  the  pollen  and  the  milky  juice  of  the  immature  seeds, 
causing  them  to  shrivel  up  and  become  comparatively 
worthless.  When  full-grown  the  larvae  drop  to  the  ground, 
where  the  transformations  are  undergone  near  the  surface. 
The  adults  appear  in  May  or  June. 

The  Resin-gnat,  Diplosis  resinicola  (D.  res-i-nic'o-la). — • 
This  species  infests  the  branches  of  various  species  of  pine. 


a!a.     (From  the  Author's  Report  for  1879.) 


We  have  found  it  throughout  the  Atlantic  region  from  New 
York  to  Florida.  The  larvae  live  together  in  considerable 
numbers  within  a  lump  of  resin.  They  derive  their  nourish- 
ment from  the  abraded  bark  of  the  twig;  and  the  resin 
exuding  from  the  wound  completely  surrounds  and  protects 


448 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


them.  The  transformations  are  undergone  within  the  lump 
of  resin.  After  the  gnats  emerge  the  empty  pupa-skins  pro- 
ject from  the  lump  of  resin  as  shown  at  the  right  in  Figure 
526.  In  this  figure  the  gnat,  a  single  wing,  and  a  part  of 
the  antenna  of  each  sex  are  represented,  all  greatly  enlarged. 

Family  RHYPHID.E  (Rhyph'i-dae). 
The  False  Crane-flies. 

The  false  crane-flies  are  so  called  because  they  resemble 
the  Tipulidae  somewhat  in  the  venation  of  the  wings,  the 


FIG.  527.— Wing  of  Rhyfhus. 

three  branches  of  vein  V  being  preserved,  and  cell  V,  being 

—    divided  by  a  cross-vein  (Fig.  527).     They  lack, 

%      however,   the   V-shaped    suture  on    the    thorax 

»1|    that  is  characteristic   of   crane-flies;  and   differ, 
•|    also,  in  having  ocelli,  and  in  the  structure  of  the 
|    antennae  (Fig.  528).     The  wings   are  wider  than 
if     is   usual  with    crane-flies,   and    the  branches    of 
F.G.  528.     lvein   In  separate  nearer  the  base  of   the  wing 

than  in  that  family. 

The  adults  are  mosquito-like  insects  with  spotted  wings, 
which  often  enter  houses,  where  they  are  found  on  windows. 
We  have  also  observed  them  in  considerable  numbers  just 
at  nightfall,  feeding  on  sugar  which  had  been  placed  on 


DIPTERA.  449 

trees  to  attract  moths.  They  feed  on  over-ripe  fruit  and 
other  vegetable  substances. 

The  larvae  are  found  in  pools  and  in  decaying  vegetable 
matter  ;  they  have  two  pairs  of  spiracles,  one  at  each  end  of 
the  body.  The  pupae  are  free. 

Only  four  species  of  false  crane-flies  have  been  found  in 
the  United  States  ;  these  belong  to  the  genus  Rhyphus 
(Rhy'phus). 

Family  ORPHNEPHILID^;  (Orph-ne-phiri-dae). 
The  Solitary-midge. 

Only  a  single  species  of  this  family,  Orphnephila  testacea 
(Orph-neph'i-la  tes-ta'ce-a),  is  known  to  occur  in  North 
America.  This  is  a  small  fly  measuring  about  one  eighth 
of  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  wing-expanse  of  one  third  inch. 

The  antennae  are  short,  about  as  long  as  the  head,  and 
nearly  of  the  same  structure  in  both  sexes  ;  the  segments  of 
the  antennas  except  those  at  the  base  are  slender  and  are 
clothed  with  a  few  short  hairs.  The  ocelli  are  wanting.  The 
compound  eyes  are  large  and  meet  in  front  in  both  sexes. 
The  wing-veins  are  well  developed  on  all  parts  of  the  wing  ; 
vein  II  ends  in  the  margin  of  the  wing  before  the  end  of 
the  basal  third  ;  vein  III  is  two-branched,  the  first  branch 
ending  in  the  margin  at  the  end  of  the  second  third  of  the 
wing  and  the  other  branch  near  the  apex  of  the  wing  ;  vein 
V  is  two-branched,  the  branches  separating  at  the  end  of  the 
basal  third  of  the  wing  and  near  the  cross-vein  III-V  ;  the 
fork  of  vein  VII  and  the  cross-vein  V-VII  are  near  the  end 
of  the  basal  fourth  of  the  wing. 

The  transformations  of  this  insect  are  unknown. 

Family  BIBIONID.E  (Bib  i-on'i-dae). 

The  March-flies. 

In  these  flies  the  body  is  comparatively  robust,  and  the 
legs  shorter  and  stouter  than  in  most  of  the  families  with 


450 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


thread-like   antennae  (Fig.   529).     The  abdomen,  however, 
is  much   longer  than  wide.     The   antennae  (Fig.  530)  are 

shorter  than  the  thorax,  and 


composed    of    short,    broad, 


FIG.  $*<).— Bibio. 


FIG.  530. 


\        * 
^^^^L/^^0 

)  Q  \  m      *w      segments.     Although  the  an- 

tennae are  hairy,  they  are  not 
furnished  with  whorls  of  long 
hairs  in  the  males,  as  is  the  case  in  most  of  the  preceding 
families.  These  insects  resemble  the  fungus-gnats  in  having 
ocelli  ;  but  they  differ  from  them  in  the  shortness  of  the 
antennae  and  in  the  fact  that  the  coxae  are  not  greatly 
elongate.  In  this  family  and  the  following  one  the  eyes  of 
the  males  are  in  many  cases  contiguous.  The  venation  of 
the  wings  of  the  typical  genus  is  represented  by  Figure  531. 


FIG.  531.— Wing  of  Bibio. 

The  adult  flies  are  generally  black  and  red,  sometimes 
yellow.  They  are  most  common  in  early  spring  ;  which  has 
suggested  the  name  March-flies  ;  but  some  occur  later  in  the 
season. 

The  larvae  vary  in  habits ;  some  species  feed  on  decay- 
ing vegetable  matter,  while  others  attack  the  roots  of  grow- 
ing plants,  especially  of  grass.  They  have  ten  pairs  of 
spiracles ;  which  is  an  unusually  large  number,  as  but  few 
insects  have  more  than  nine  pairs.  The  pupae  are  usually 
free. 


DIPT  ERA. 


45* 


v   Family  SiMULUD^E  (Sim-u-li'i-dae). 
The  Black-flies. 

The  common  name,  black-flies,  given  to  the  members  of 
this  family  is  not  distinctive,  for  there  are  many  species  in 
other  families  that  are  of  this  color  ;  but  like  many  other 
names  that  are  descriptive  in  form,  it  has  come  to  have  a 
specific  meaning  distinct  from  its  original  one.  It  is  like 
the  word  blackberry  ;  some  blackberries  are  white,  and  not 
all  berries  that  are  black  are  blackberries. 

In  this  family  the  body  is  short  and  stout  (Fig.  532)  ;  the 
legs  are  short,  and  the  tibiae  are  without  spurs.  The  anten- 
nae, although  composed  of  many  seg- 
ments, are  comparatively  short,  and 
taper  towards  the  tip  (Fig.  533)  ;  the 
segments  of  the-  antennae  are  short 
and  closely  pressed  together  ;  they 
are  clothed  with  fine  hairs,  but  do  not 
bear  whorls  of  long  hairs.  There  are 
no  ocelli.  In  the  males  the  compound 
eyes  are  contiguous,  and  are  composed  of  two  kinds  of 
ocelli,  those  of  one  part  of  the  eye  being  much  larger  than 


FIG  FJG 


FIG.  S34-— Wing  of  Simulium. 

the  others.  The  wings  are  broad,  iridescent,  and  not 
clothed  with  hairs.  The  veins  near  the  costal  border  are 
stout ;  those  on  the  other  parts  of  the  wing  are  very  weak 
(Fig.  534). 


452  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  females  of -many  species  suck  blood  and  are  well- 
known  pests.  Unlike  mosquitoes  and  midges,  the  black-flies 
like  heat  and  strong  light.  They  are  often  seen  in  large 
numbers  disporting  themselves  in  the  brightest  sunshine. 

The  larvae  are  aquatic ;  and  usually  live  in  swiftly-flowing 
streams,  clinging  to  the  surface  of  rocks  in  rapids  or  on  the 
brinks  of  falls.  They  sometimes  occur  in  such  large  num- 
bers as  to  form  a  moss-like  coating  over  the  rocks.  There 
is  a  disk-like  sucker  fringed  with  little  hooks  at  the  caudal 
end  of  the  body  by  means  of  which  the  larva  clings  to  the 
rocks;  and  just  back  of  the  head  there  is  a  fleshy  proleg 
which  ends  in  a  similar  sucker  fringed  with  hooks  (Fig.  535). 
By  means  of  these  two  organs  the  larva  is  able 
to  walk  with  a  looping  gait  similar  to  that  of  a 
measuring-worm.  It  also  has  the  power  of 
spinning  silk  from  its  mouth,  which  it  uses  in 
locomotion.  The  hooks  on  the  caudal  sucker 
and  at  the  end  of  the  proleg  are  well  adapted 
FIG  .  -  Head  to  c^nging  to  a  thread  or  to  a  film  of  silk 
of  "larva.  Spun  upon  the  rock  to  which  the  larva  is 
clinging.  Respiration  is  accomplished  by  means  of  three 
much-branched  tracheal  gills  which  are  pushed  out  from  be- 
tween the  last  two  abdominal  segments.  The  head  bears 
two  large  fan-shaped  organs,  which  aid  in  procuring  food. 
The  food  consists  of  microscopic  plants  and  bits  of  tissue  of 
larger  plants. 

When  full-grown  the  larva  spins  a  boot-shaped  cocoon 
within  which    the  pupa  state  is   passed 
(Fig-   536)-     This  cocoon    is  firmly  fast- 
ened to  the  rock  upon  which  the  larva 
has  lived  or  to  other  cocoons,  for  they 
occur  in  dense  masses,  forming  a  carpet- 
like  covering  on  the  rocks.     The  pupa, 
like  the  larva,  breathes  by  tracheal  gills ; 
but  in  tin's   stage   the  tracheal  gills  are  FlG.  S36.-Lar 
borne  by  the  prothorax. 


DIPTERA.  453 

The  adult  fly,  on  emerging  from  the  pupa-skin,  rises  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  and  takes  flight  at  once.  Soon 
after  this,  the  eggs  are  laid.  We  have  often  watched  the 
flies  hovering  over  the  brink  of  a  fall  where  there  was  a  thin 
sheet  of  swiftly-flowing  water,  and  have  seen  them  dart  into 
the  water  and  out  again.  At  such  times  we  have  always 
found  the  surface  of  the  rock  more  or  less  thickly  coated 
with  eggs,  and  have  no  doubt  that  an  egg  is  fastened  to  the 
rock  each  time  a  fly  darts  into  the  water. 

The  above  account  is  based  on  observations  made  on  the 
Innoxious  Black-fly,  Simulium  innoxium  (Si-mu'li-um  in- 
nox'i-um),  which  is  exceedingly  common  in  the  streams 
about  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  This  species,  fortunately,  is  not  blood- 
thirsty, for,  notwithstanding  its  great  abundance  in  this 
locality,  we  have  never  known  it  to  bite. 

The  Southern  Buffalo-gnat,  Simulium  pecuarum  (S.  pec- 
u-a'rum),  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  is  a  terrible  pest,  which 
causes  the  death  of  many  mules  and  other  domestic  animals. 
The  popular  name  of  this  insect  refers  to  a  fancied  resem- 
blance in  the  shape  of  the  insect  when  viewed  from  one  side 
to  that  of  a  buffalo. 

The  Turkey-gnat,  Simulium  meridionale  (S.  me-rid-i-o- 
na'le),  closely  resembles  the  preceding  in  habits,  infesting 
all  kinds  of  domestic  animals ;  but  as  it  appears  at  the  time 
that  turkeys  are  setting  and  causes  great  injury  to  this  fowl, 
it  is  commonly  known  as  the  Turkey-gnat. 

The  Adirondack  Black-fly,  Simulium  molestum  (S.  mo- 
les'tum),  is  a  scourge  in  the  mountains  of  the  Northeastern 
States. 

Family  TABANID^:  (Ta-ban'i-dae). 

The  Horse-flies. 

The  horse-flies  are  well-known  pests  of  stock,  and  are 
often  extremely  annoying  to  man.  They  appear  in  sum- 
mer, are  common  in  woods,  and  are  most  abundant  in  the 
hottest  weather. 


454 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


In  this  family  the  third  segment  of  the  antenna  is  ringed 
(Figs.  537,  538)  and  is  never  furnished  with  a  distinct  style 
or  bristle.  The  wing-veins  (Fig.  539) 
are  evenly  distributed  over  the  wing, 
as  the  branches  of  vein  III  are  not 
crowded  together  as  in  the  follow- 
ing family ;  the  costal  vein  extends 
completely  around  the  wing ;  the 
alulets  are  large. 

The   flight  of  these  flies  is  very 
powerful ;  they  are  able  to  outstrip 
the  swiftest  horse.     The  males  feed 
on    the   nectar   of   flowers   and    on 
Antenna'of  sweet  sap.     The  mouth-parts  of  the 

Chrysops.  r  * 

female   are   fitted   for  piercing   the 
skin  and  sucking  the  blood   of  men  and  quadrupeds;  the 


•VIIj  +  IX' 

FIG.  539.— Wing  of  Tabanus. 

females,  however,  also  feed  on  the  sweets  of  plants  when 
they  cannot  obtain  blood. 

The  larvae  are  carnivorous  ;  many  live  in  the  earth  ;  others 
live  in  water.  They  feed  on  various  small  animals ;  some 
upon  snails,  others  upon  the  larvae  of  insects.  In  most  cases 
they  have  a  single  pair  of  spiracles,  which  is  situated  at  the 
hind  end  of  the  body;  some  have  a  pair  of  spiracles  at 
each  end  of  the  body.  The  pupa  is  not  enclosed  in  the 
skin  of  the  larva. 


D1PTERA. 


455 


The  larger  species,  as  well  as  some  of  moderate  size, 
belong  to  the  genus  Tabanus  (Ta-ba'nus),  of  which  nearly 
one  hundred  American  spe- 
cies are  known.  One  of  the 
most  common  of  these  is  the 
Mourning  Horse-fly,  Tabanus 
atratus  (T.  a-tra'tus).  This 
insect  is  of  an  uniform  black 
color  throughout,  except  that 
the  body  may  have  a  bluish 
tinge  (Fig.  540). 

To  the  genus  Chrysops 
(Chry'sops) belong  the  smaller 
and  more  common  horse-flies  with  banded  wings  (Fig.  541). 
Nearly  fifty  North  American  species  of  this  genus  have 
been  described. 

Family  STRATIOMYIID/E  (Strat-i-o-my-i'i-doe). 

The  Soldier-flies. 

The  soldier-flies  are  so  called  on  account  of  the  bright- 
colored  stripes,  with  which  some  of  the  species  are  marked. 

In   the    more    typical    mem- 
bers of  this  family  the  abdo- 
men   is    broad    and    greatly 
*\ I  I  flattened  (Fig.  542),  and  the 

|f  \         wings  when  at  rest  lie  parallel 

'tf  JttL        uP°n  eacn  other  over  the  ab- 

vi  99       domen.     But  in  some  genera 

«  V  i  -         the  abdomen    is  narrow  and 

considerably  elongate. 

The  antennae  vary  greatly 
in  form ;  in  some  genera  the  third  segment  is  long  and  con- 
sists of  several  quite  distinct  rings  (Fig.  543) ;  in  others  it  is 
short  with  but  few  indistinctly-separated  rings  and  with  a 
bristle  (Fig.  544),  as  in  the  true  true  short-horned  flies. 

The  most  distinctive  characteristic  is  the  peculiar  vena 


FIG  543' 


456 


THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


tion  of  the  wings  (Fig.  545).     The  branches  of  vein  III  are 
crowded  together  near  the  costal  border  of  the  wing ;  and 


FIG.    546  —  Puparium    of    Odon- 


FlG.  545. — Wing  of  Stratiomyia. 

the  first  cell  V,  is  unusually  short  and  broad  ;  the  branches 
of  Vein  V  and  vein  VII,  are  comparatively  weak. 

These  flies  are  found  on  flowers  and  leaves,  especially  in 
the  vicinity  of  water  and  in  bogs  and  marshes.     The  larvae 
live  in  water,  earth  or  decaying  wood. 
Some  are  carnivorous,  others  feed  on 
tomyia.  decaying    vegetable    matter.     They 

have  six  or  seven  pairs  of  spiracles ;  the  pupa  state  is  passed 
within  the  skin  of  the  larva  (Fig.  546). 

Family  LEPTID^:  (Lep'ti-dae). 
The  Snipe-flies. 

These  trim-appearing  flies  have  rather  long  legs,  a  cone- 
shaped  abdomen  tapering  towards  the  hind  end  (Fig.  547), 
and  sometimes  a  downward-projecting  proboscis,  which 
with  the  form  of  the  body  and  legs  has  sug- 
gested the  name  snipe-flies.  Some  members  of 
the  family,  however,  are  remarkable  for  their  re- 
semblance to  certain  Ichneumon-flies,  the  abdo- 
men being  long  and  somewhat  compressed. 

The  body  is  naked  or  hairy,  but  it  is  not 
clothed  with  strong  bristles.  Frequently  the 
hairy  covering,  though  short,  is  very  dense  and  is 
of  strongly-contrasting  colors.  Three  ocelli  are 
present.  The  antennae  vary  greatly  in  form  ; 


D1PTERA.  457 

genera  the  third  segment  consists  of  several  subseg- 
ments,  which  may  be  quite  distinct  (Fig.  548) ;  in  others  the 
antennae  are  only  three-jointed,  and  the  third  segment  bears 
a  style  or  bristle  (Fig.  549).  The  proboscis  is  usually  short, 
only  a  few  members  of  the  family  having  it  long  like  the 
bill  of  a  snipe.  The  wings  are  broad,  and  when  at  rest  are 
held  half  open.  The  empodia  are  pulvilliform ;  that  is, 


FIG.  548. — Antenna  of  Xylo-       FIG.  549. — Antenna  FIG.  550. 

phagus  and,  /,  palpus.  of  Chrysopila. 

there  are  three,  nearly  equal,  membranous  pads  beneath  the 
tarsal  claws  (Fig.  550). 

Although  the  form  of  the  antennae  in  certain  genera 
closely  resembles  that  characteristic  of  the  long-horned  flies 
(Nematocera),  the  form  of  the  palpus  even  in  these  cases 
(Fig.  548,  p)  is  that  characteristic  of  the  short-horned  flies 
(Brachycera),  being  only  two-jointed  and  not  pendulous. 

The  venation  of  the  wings  is  comparatively  generalized 
(Figs.  551,  552),  each  of  the  principal  veins  usually  extend- 
ing distinct  from  the  others;  but  in  some  veins VII,  and  IX 
coalesce  at  the  margin  of  the  wing  (Fig,  552).  Vein  III  is 
four-branched  ;  the  branches  of  vein  V  are  connected  with 
adjacent  veins  only  by  cross-veins ;  and  cell  V,  is  divided  by 
a  cross-vein. 

The  flies  are  predaceous.  They  may  be  found  about 
low  bushes  and  on  tall  grass.  They  are  somewhat  sluggish, 
and,  therefore,  easily  caught. 

The  larvae  also   are   predaceous.     Some    live   in  earth, 


458 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


decaying  wood,  or  dry  sand  ;  others  live  in  moss  or  in  water. 
They  have  either  two  pairs  of  spiracles,  one  at  each  end  of 


FIG.  551.— Wing  of  Leptis. 

the   body,  or  are   furnished  with  tracheal  gills.     The  last 
segment  of  the  body  has  a  transverse  cleft,  both  above  and 


FIG.  552.— Wing  of  Xylophagus. 

below,  which  is  furnished  above  with  two  processes.     The 
pupae  are  free. 

The  family  is  of  moderate  size-;    about  seventy  North 
American  species  have  been  described. 

Family  ACROCERID^:  (Ac-ro-cer'i-dae). 

The  Small-headed  Flies. 

These  flies  are  easily  recognized  by  the  unusually  small 
head,  the  large  humpbacked  thorax,  the  in- 
flated abdomen,  and  the  very  large  alulets 
(Fig.  553). 

FIG.    ^.-Ptero-        The  liead  is  composed  almost  entirely  of 
dontia  miseiia.    eves>  an(j   jn   some   genera   is    minute.     The 


DIPT  ERA. 


459 


eyes  are  contiguous  in  both  sexes.  The  antennae  are  two- 
or  three-jointed,  and  are  furnished  with  a  style  or  bristle  in 
some  genera,  in  others  not.  The  venation  of  the  wings 
varies  greatly  in  the  different  genera.  We  are  unable,  there- 
fore, to  point  out  distinctive  features  drawn  from  these 
organs.  The  figure  given  (Fig.  554)  represents  a  single 
genus  rather  than  the  family. 


Vlh  +  IX 
FIG.  554. — Wing  of  Eulonchus 

The  flies  are  generally  slow  and  feeble  in  their  move- 
ments. In  some  species  that  feed  upon  flowers  the  pro- 
boscis is  very  long,  sometimes  exceeding  the  body  in  length. 
Other  species  take  no  nourishment  in  the  adult  state,  and 
have  no  proboscis.  The  empodia  are  pulvilliform. 

"  The  larvae  are  apparently  chiefly  parasitic,  and  in  the 
few  species  in  which  they  have  been  observed  are  parasitic 
on  spiders  or  their  cocoons,  in  the  former  cases  the  young 
larvae  living  within  the  abdomen."  (Williston.) 

Family  NEMISTRINID^:  (Nem-is-trin'i-dae). 
The  Tangle-veined  Flies. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  of  medium  size ;  some 
of  them  resemble  horse-flies,  and  others  bee-flies.  They 
can  be  recognized  by  the  peculiar  venation  of  the  wings, 
there  being  an  unusual  amount  of  anastomosing  of  the 
veins  (Fig.  555),  which  gives  the  wings  a  very  characteristic 
appearance. 


46o 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  antennae  are  small  and  short ;  the  third  segment  is 
simple  and  furnished  with  a  slender,  jointed,  terminal  style. 
The  proboscis  is  usually  long,  sometimes  very  long,  and 


YJ  + vn, 

FIG.  555. — Wing  of  RhyncJiocephalus  sackeni. 

fitted  for  sucking  nectar  from  flowers.  Only  four  North 
American  species  have  been  described  ;  and  these  are  all 
rare. 

Family  AsiLiD^E  (A-sil'i-dae). 

The  Robber-flies. 

These  are  mostly  large  flies,  and  some  of  the.m  are  very 
large.  The  body  is  usually  elongate,  with  a  very  long, 
slender  abdomen  (Fig.  556);  but  some  species  are  quite 
stout,  resembling  bumblebees  jn  form.  This  resemblance  is 
often  increased  by  a  d«nse  clothing  of  black  and  yellow 
hairs. 

In  this  and  the  following  family  the  vertex  of  the  head 


FIG.  556. — Erax  apical  is  destroying 
a  cotton-worm.  (From  the  Au- 
thor's Report  for  1879.) 


FIG.  557.— Head  of 
robber-fly. 


FIG.  558. 


is  hollowed  out  between  the  eyes  (Fig.  557).     In  this  family 
the  proboscis  is  pointed  and  does  not  bear  fleshy  lips  at  the 


DIPTERA,  461 

tip.  The  antennae  project  forward  in  a  prominent  manner. 
They  are  three-jointed,  and  with  or  without  a  terminal  style. 
The  style  when  present  sometimes  appears  like  one  or  two 
additional  segments  (Fig.  558). 

Vein  III4  (Fig.  559)  does  not  curve  forward  toward  the 
costal  margin  of  the  wing  as  in  the  following  family.  Cell 
V3  is  present,  but  is  usually  closed  by  the  coalescence  of  the 


-VU.+DC 

FIG.  559.— Wing  of  Erax. 

tips  of  veins  Vs  and  VII,.  The  tips  of  veins  VII,  and  IX 
may  or  may  not  coalesce  for  a  short  distance.  The  robber- 
flies  are  extremely  predaceous.  They  not  only  destroy 
other  flies,  but  powerful  insects,  as  bumblebees,  tiger-beetles, 
and  dragon-flies,  fall  prey  to  them  ;  they  will  also  feed  upon 
larvae.  They  are  common  in  open  fields  and  are  as  apt  to 
alight  on  the  ground  as  on  elevated  objects. 

The  larvae  live  chiefly  in  the  ground  or  in  decaying  wood, 
where  they  prey  upon  the  larvae  of  beetles ;  some,  however, 
are  supposed  to  feed  upon  the  roots  of  plants.  The  pupae 
are  free. 

The  family  includes  a  large  number  of  genera  and 
species. 

Family  MIDAID.E  (Mi-da'i-dae). 
The  Midas-flics. 

The  Midas-flies  rival  the  robber-flies  in  size,  and  quite 
closely  resemble  them  in  appearance.  As  in  that  family, 
the  vertex  of  the  head  is  hollowed  out  between  the 


462 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


eyes ;  but  these  flies  can  be  distinguished  by  the  form 
of  the  proboscis,  which  bears  a  pair  of  fleshy  lobes 
at  the  tip,  by  the  form  of  the  antennae,  which  are 
long  and  clubbed  at  the  tip  (Fig.  560),. and  by  the 
peculiar  venation  of  the  wings  (Fig.  561),  vein  V,  ter- 
minating at  or  before  the  apex  of  the  wing,  and  the 
branches  of  vein  III  coalescing  near  the  apex  of  the 
wing  in  an  unusual  way. 

FIG.  S6o.        The  adult  flies  are  predaceous.     The  family  is  a 

small  one ;  but  a  large  proportion  of  the  species  occur  on 

this  continent. 


YH* 


la-l-IX 

FIG.  561.— Wing  of  Midas. 


Family  APIOCERID^  (A-pi-o-cer'i-dae). 

The  Apiocerids  (A-pi-oc*  e-rids). 
This  family  includes  only  a  small  number  of   species, 


Vj  +  VII,. 
FIG.  562.— Wing  of  Afiocera.    (After  Williston.) 

which  are  rare  and  occur  in  the  far  West.     They  are  rather 
large  and  elongate,  and  are  found  upon  flowers. 


DIPTERA.  463 

The  head  is  not  hollowed  out  between  the  eyes ;  the 
ocelli  are  present ;  the  antennae  are  furnished  with  a  short, 
simple  style.  Vein  III  is  usually  four-branched,  but  some- 
times it  is  only  three-branched  ;  all  of  the  branches  of  vein 
III  end  before  the  apex  of  the  wing  (Fig.  562) ;  cell  V3  is 
present,  but  closed  by  the  coalescence  of  veins  Vs  and  VII, 
at  the  margin  of  the  wing ;  and  cell  V,  is  divided  by  a  cross- 
vein.  The  empodia  are  wanting. 

Family  BOMBYLIID^E  (Bom-by-li'i-dae). 
The  Bee-flies. 

These  flies  are  mostly  of  medium  size,  some  are  small, 
others   are    rather   large.      In   some    the 
body    is    short    and    broad    and    densely 
clothed  with  long,  delicate  hair  (Fig.  563). 
Other   species   resemble    the    horse-flies 
somewhat  in  appearance,  especially  in  the 
dark  color  or  markings  of  the  wings  ;  but     FlG-  ^--Bombyiius. 
these  can  be  distinguished  from  the  horse-flies  by  the  form 
of  the  antennae  and  the  venation  of  the  wings. 

The  antennae  are  usually  short ;  they  are  three-jointed  ; 
the  third  segment  is  not  ringed ;  the  style  is  sometimes 
present  and  sometimes  wanting.  The  ocelli  are  present. 
The  proboscis  is  sometimes  very  long  and  slender,  and 
sometimes  short  and  furnished  with  fleshy  lips  at  the  ex- 
tremity. 

Vein  III  of  the  wings  (Fig.  564)  is  four-branched  ;  cell 
III3  is  sometimes  divided  by  a  cross-vein  ;  cell  V3  is  obliter- 
ated by  the  coalescence  of  veins  V8  and  VII,  ;  in  a  few 
genera  cell  V,  is  also  obliterated  by  the  coalescence  of  veins 
V,  and  Va ;  cell  VIII  is  narrowly  open,  or  is  closed  at  or 
near  the  border  of  the  wing.  The  alulets  are  small  or  of 
moderate  size. 

The  adult  flies  feed  on  nectar,  and  are  found  hovering 
over  blossoms,  or  resting  on  sunny  paths,  sticks  or  stones; 
they  rarely  alight  on  leaves. 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  larvae  are  parasitic,  infesting  hymenopterous  and 
lepidopterous  larvae  and  pupae  and  the  egg-sacs  of  Orthop- 
tera,  The  pupae  are  free. 


FIG.  564. — Wing  of  Pa.nta.rbes  capita. 

The  family  is  a  large  one,  including  many  genera  and 
species. 

Family  THEREVID^:  (The-rev'i-dae). 
The  Stiletto-flies. 

With  the  flies  of  this  family  the  head  is  transverse,  being 
nearly  as  wide  as  the  thorax  ;  and  the  abdomen  is  long  and 
tapering,  suggesting  the  name  stiletto-flies.  These  flies  are 
small  or  of  medium  size ;  they  are  hairy  or  bristly.  The 
antennae  are  three-jointed  ;  the  third  segment  is  simple,  and 
usually  bears  a  terminal  style ;  but  this  is  sometimes  want- 
ing. Three  ocelli  are  present.  The  legs  are  slender  and 
bristly;  the  empodia  are  wanting. 

Vein  III  of  the  wings  (Fig.  565)  is  four-branched,  and 
the  last  branch  (vein  II I5)  terminates  beyond  the  apex  of 
the  wing  ;  the  branches  of  vein  V  are  all  separate  ;  cell  VIII 
is  closed  near  the  border  of  the  wing;  the  2d  cell  III  and 
cell  V  are  long. 

The  adult  flies  are  predaceous ;  and  conceal  themselves 
among  the  leaves  of  low  bushes  or  settle  on  the  ground  in 
sandy  spots,  waiting  for  other  insects  upon  which  they 
prey. 

The  larvae  are  long  and  slender,  and  the  body  is  appar- 
ently composed  of  nineteen  segments.  They  are  found  in 


DIPT  ERA. 


465 


earth,  fungi,  and  decaying  wood.  They  feed  on  decaying 
animal  and  vegetable  matter  and  are  said  to  be  predaceous 
also.  The  pupae  are  free. 


Vlh+IX 


VII, 


FIG.  565. — Wing  of  Therev*. 

The  family  is  a  comparatively  small  one,  including  but 
few  genera  and  species. 

Family  SCENOPINID^E  (Scen-o-pin'i-dae). 
The  Window-flies. 

The  window-flies  are  so-called  because  the  best-known 
species  are  found  almost  exclusively  on  windows  ;  but  the 
conclusion  that  these  are  the  most  common  flies  found  on 
windows  should  not  be  drawn  from  this  name ;  for  such  is 
not  the  case. 

These  flies  are  of  medium  size,  our  most  common  species 
measuring  one-fourth  inch  in  length.  They  are  usually 
black,  and  are  not  clothed  with  bristles. 
The  thorax  is  prominent,  and  the  abdomen 
is  flattened  and  somewhat  bent  down,  so 
that  the  body  when  viewed  from  the  side 
presents  a  humpbacked  appearance  (Fig. 
566).  When  at  rest,  the  wings  lie  parallel, 
one  over  the  other,  on  the  abdomen  ;  when  in  this  position 
they  are  very  inconspicuous.  There  are  three  ocelli.  The 
antennae  are  three-jointed';  the  first  and  second  segments 
are  short,  the  third  is  long  and  bears  neither  a  style  nor  a 
bristle  (Fig.  567). 


FIG.  566.  FIG.  567. 

Scenopinus. 


466  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

The  venation  of  the  wings  is  represented  by  Figure  568. 
Vein  III  is  four-branched  ;  cells  V,  and  V,  are  both  obliter- 
ated by  the  coalescence  of  the  veins  that  bound  them  ;  cell 
VIII  is  closed  at  a  considerable  distance  before  the  margin  ; 
and  the  2d  cell  III  is  much  longer  than  cell  V. 

The   larvae,  which   are   sometimes   found    in   dwellings 


FIG.  568.— Wing  of  Scenopinus. 

under  carpets  or  in  furniture,  are  very  slender,  and  are  re- 
markable for  the  apparently  large  number  of  the  segments 
of  the  body,  each  of  the  abdominal  segments  except  the  last 
being  divided  by  a  strong  constriction.  They  are  also  found 
in  decaying  wood,  and  are  supposed  to  be  carnivorous. 

The  family  is  a  very  small  one.  The  most  common 
species  is  Scenopinus  fenestralis  (Sce-nop'i-nus  fen-es-tra'lis). 

Family  EMPIDID^E  (Em-pid'i-dae). 
The  Dance-flies. 

The  dance-flies  are  of  medium  or  small  size ;  they  are 
often  seen  in  swarms  under  trees  or  near  shrubs  and  about 
brooks,  dancing  and  hunting.  The  family  is  a  rather  diffi- 
cult one  to  characterize  owing  to  great  variations  in  the 
form  of  the  antennae  and  in  the  venation  of  the  wings. 

The  branches  of  vein  VII  coalesce  with  the  adjacent 
veins  (VII,  with  V8  and  VII2  with  IX)  from  the  margin  of 
the  wing  towards  the  base  for  a  considerable  distance  (Fig. 
569).  In  most  of  the  genera  this  coalescence  is  carried  so 
far  that  the  free  parts  of  the  branches  of  vein  VII  appear 


DIPTERA. 


467 


like  cross-veins.  The  only  other  families  of  the  suborder 
Orthorrhapha  in  which  this  occurs  are  the  two  following ; 
and  the  venation  of  the  wings  in  each  of  these  is  very  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  Empididae. 

The  antennae  are  three-jointed  ;   the   first   and   second 


FIG.  569.—  Wing  of  Rhamphomyia. 

segments  are  often  very  small,  and  then  appear  like  a  single 
segment  ;  the  third  segment  may  or  may  not  bear  a  style  or 
bristle.  The  mouth-parts  are  in  many  cases  long,  and  ex- 
tend at  right  angles  to  the  body  or  are  bent  back  upon  the 
breast. 

These  flies  are  predaceous,  like  the  robber-flies  ;  but  they 
also  frequent  flowers.  The  larvae  live  in  decaying  vegetable 
matter,  but  are  probably  carnivorous.  The  pupae  are  free. 
The  family  is  a  large  one,  containing  many  genera  and 
species. 

Family  DOLICHOPODID^:  (Dol-i-cho-pod'i-dae). 
The  Long-legged  Flies. 

These  flies  are  of  small  or  medium  size  and    usually 
bright  metallic  green  in  color.     The  legs  are 
much  longer   than   is  usual    in  the    families 
belonging  to  the  series  of  short-horned  flies 
(Fig.    570).     This  suggested   the   name  Do- 
lichopus  (Do-lich'o-pus),  which    means   long- 
footed,  for  the  typical  genus;  and  from  this  FlG 
the  family  name  is  derived.      It  should  be 


_/w/vAo- 


468  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

remembered,  however,  that  these  flies  are  long-legged  in 
comparison  with  the  allied  families,  and  not  in  comparison 
with  crane-flies  and  midges. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  easily  distinguished  as 
such  by  the  peculiar  venation  of  the  wings,  the  most  char- 
acteristic features  of  which  are  the  following  (Fig.  571): 
cells  V  and  ist  V,  are  not  separated  by  a  vein,  the  basal 
part  of  vein  V3  being  undeveloped  ;  veins  III.2+3  and  III4+B 
separate  near  the  base  of  the  wing,  and  the  two  veins  form 


FIG.  571.— Wing  of  Psihphu*  ciliatus. 


at  the  point  of  separation  a  more  or  less  knot-shaped  swell- 
ing; the  cross-vein  III-V  is  at  or  close  by  this  swelling,  so 
that  cell  III  is  very  short.  A  somewhat  similar  venation 
occurs  in  some  of  the  Muscidae  ;  but  there  the  knot-shaped 
swelling  on  vein  III  is  often  wanting,  and  the  cross-vein 
III-V  is  usually  more  remote  from  the  base  of  the  wing; 
and  too  the  flies  belonging  to  the  Muscidae  possess  the 
suture  above  the  antennae  characteristic  of  the  suborder  Cy- 
clorrhapha. 

The  members  of  this  family  have  three  ocelli ;  the  an- 
tennae are  three-jointed  ;  the  second  segment  of  the  antenna 
is  sometimes  rudimentary ;  and  the  third  segment  bears  a 
two-jointed  arista. 

The  adults  are  predaceous  and  hunt  for  smaller  flies  and 


DIPTERA. 


469 


other  soft-bodied  insects.  They  are  usually  found  in  damp 
places,  covered  with  rank  vegetation.  Some  species  occur 
chiefly  on  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  and  about  dams  and 
waterfalls  ;  and  some  are  able  to  run  over  the  surface  of 
water.  Others  occur  in  dry  places. 

The  larvae  live  in  earth  or  decomposing  vegetable  matter. 
They  are  long,  slender,  and  cylindrical,  and  have  two  pairs 
of  spiracles,  one  at  each  end  of  the  body.  In  most  cases  the 
pupae  are  free  ;  but  some  form  cocoons.  The  thorax  of  the 
pupa  bears  a  pair  of  long  breathing-tubes. 

The  family  is  a  large  one  ;  more  than  two  hundred  North 
American  species  have  been  described  already. 

Family  LONCHOPTERID.E  (Lon-chop-ter'i-dae). 
The  Spear-winged  Flies. 

These  are  minute  flies,  which  measure  from  one  twelfth 
to  one  sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  are  usually  brownish 
or  yellowish.  When  at  rest  the  wings  are  folded  flat,  one 
over  the  other,  on  the  abdomen.  The  apex  of  the  wing  is 
pointed  ;  and  the  wing  as  a  whole  is  shaped  somewhat  like 
the  head  of  a  spear.  This  suggested  the  family  name. 

The  venation  of  the  wings  is  very  characteristic,  and  is 
sufficient  to  distinguish  these  flies  from  all  others.  The 


Vila 


Vj  •«•  VII  i 
FIG.  572.— Wing  of  Lonchoptera. 


cross-veins  III-V  and  V-VII  are  oblique,  and  near  the 
base  of  the  wing  (Fig.  572)-  Vein  VII,  is  very  short,  and 
extends  towards  the  base  of  the  wing.  In  the  females  vein 


470  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

VII,  coalesces  with  vein  V3 ,  as  shown  in  the  figure ;  but 
in  the  males  the  tip  of  vein  YII,  is  free.  The  posterior 
lobe  is  wanting. 

Three  ocelli  are  present.  The  antennae  are  three-jointed  ; 
the  third  segment  is  globular,  and  bears  a  three-jointed 
style. 

These  flies  are  common  from  spring  till  autumn,  in  damp 
grassy  places.  They  frequent  the  shores  of  shady  brooks, 
where  the  atmosphere  is  moist.  But  little  is  known  as  yet 
about  their  habits  and  tranformations. 

In  the  shape  of  the  wings,  the  absence  of  cross-veins, 
except  at  the  base  of  the  wing,  and  the  great  reduction  of 
the  anal  area  of  the  wing  the  flies  closely  resemble  the  Psy- 
chodidae. 

Suborder  CYCLORRHAPHA  (Cy-clor'rha-pha). 

The  Circular-seamed  Flies. 

To  this  suborder  belong  those  families  of  flies  in  which 
the  pupa  escapes  from  the  larval  skin  through  a 
round    opening   made  by  pushing  off  the  head- 
end of  it  (Fig.  573).     The  pupa  is  always  enclosed 
in  a  puparium.     The  adult  flies  possess  a  frontal 
lunule  (see  footnote  page  461),  and  except  in  the 
pupGa'num~of  ^rst  ^our  families  a  frontal  suture,  through  which 
a  Muscid.     tjie    ptilinum    is   pushed  out,  when    the  adult   is 
about  to  emerge  from  the  puparium  (see  page  419). 

Family  SYRPHID^:  (Syr'phi-dae). 

The  Syrphus-flies. 

The  family  Syrphidae  includes  many  of  our  common 
flies ;  but  the  different  species  vary  so  much  in  form  that 
no  general  description  of  their  appearance  can  be  given. 
Many  of  them  mimic  hymenopterous  insects ;  thus  some 
species  resemble  bumblebees,  others  the  honey-bee,  and 
still  others  wasps ;  while  some  present  but  little  resemblance 
to  any  of  these. 


DIPTERA.  471 

The  most  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  family  is  the 
presence  of  a  thickening  of  the  membrane  of  the  wing,  which 
appears  like  a  longitudinal  vein  between  veins  III  and  V. 
This  is  termed  the  spurious  vein,  and  is  lacking  in  only  a  few 
members  of  the  family  ;  it  is  represented  in  Figure  574  by  a 


FIG.  574.— Wing  of  Eristalis. 

band  of  stippling.  Cell  III6  is  closed  ;  and  the  2d  cell  III 
and  cell  V  are  large, 

The  antennae  are  three-jointed  ;  the  third  segment  usually 
bears  a  dorsal  bristle,  but  sometimes  it  is  furnished  with  a 
thickened  style.  The  face  is  not  furnished  with  longitudinal 
furrows  to  receive  the  antennae  as  in  the  Muscidae.  The 
frontal  lunule  is  present,  but  the  frontal  suture  is  wanting. 

The  adults  frequent  flowers  an.d  feed  upon  honey  and 
pollen.  Some  fly  with  a  loud  humming  sound  like  that  of 
a  bee ;  others  hover  motionless  except  as  to  their  wings  for 
a  time,  and  then  dart  away  suddenly  for  a  short  distance, 
and  then  resume  their  hovering. 

The  larvae  vary  greatly  in  form  and  habits.  Some  prey 
upon  plant-lice,  and  are  often  found  in  the  midst  of  colonies 
of  these  insects  ;  others  feed  on  decaying  vegetable  matter, 
and  live  in  rotten  wood,  in  mud,  and  in  water.  Some  are 
found  in  the  nests  of  ants  ;  and  some  in  the  nests  of  bum- 
blebees and  of  wasps. 

Among  the  common  representatives  of  this  family  there 
is  one  that  so  closely  resembles  a  male  honey-bee  as  to  be 


§ 


472  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

often  mistaken  for  it.  This  is  the  Drone-fly,  Eristalis  tenax 
(E-ris'ta-lis  te'nax).  It  is  common  about  flowers.  The 
larva  lives  in  foul  water,  where  it  feeds  on  decaying  vegeta- 
ble matter ;  it  is  of  the  form  known  as  "  rat-tailed,"  which  is 
described  below. 

The  larvae  of  the  genus  Volucella  (Vol-u-cel'la)  are  pre- 
daceous,  living  in  the  nests  of  bumblebees  and  of  wasps 
(Vespa),  and  feeding  upon  their  larvae.  Some  of  the  species 
in  the  adult  state  very  closely  re- 
semble bumblebees. 

The  larvae  of  the  genus  Micro- 
dkw(Mic'ro-don)  are  hemispherical, 

FIG.  575. — Microdon^  adult  and  x  / 

larva-  slug -like      creatures    (Fig.     575), 

which  resemble  mollusks  more  than  ordinary  maggots  ;  they 
are  common  in  ants'  nests. 

The  larvae  of  several  species  that  live  in  water  as  well  as 
some  that  live  in  rotten  wood  are  known  as  rat-tailed  mag- 
gots on  account  of  a  long,  tail-like  appendage,  with  which 
the  hind  end  of  the  body  is  furnished.  This  is  a  tube,  like 
that  of  a  diver,  which  enables  the  insect  to  obtain  air  when 
its  body  is  submerged  beneath  several  inches  of  water  or  de- 
caying matter.  This  tube  being  telescopic  can  be  lengthened 
or  shortened  as  the  insect  may  need  it;  and  at  its  tip  there 
is  a  rosette  of  hairs,  which,  floating  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  keeps  the  tip  from  being  submerged.  The  larva  has 
on  the  ventral  side  of  its  body  several  pairs  of  tubercles 
armed  with  spines,  which  serve  as  prolegs. 

Among  the  more  common  members  of  this  family  are 
the    yellow-banded    species    belonging    to    the 
genus  Syrphus  (Syr'phus)  (Fig.  576).     The  larvae 
of  these  live  in  colonies  of  Aphids,  and  do  much 
good  by  destroying  these  pests. 

This  family  is  a  very  large  one  ;  nearly  or 

FIG.  576. — Syr- 

quite  two  thousand  species    being  known.     In         /***• 
his  monograph  of  the  species  of  America  north  of  Mexico, 


DIPTERA. 


473 


Professor  Williston  describes  about  three  hundred   species 
from  this  region.* 

Family  PlPUNCULID^;  (Pip-un-cu'li-dae). 

The  Big-eyed  Flies. 

This  family  is  represented  in  the  United  States  by  a 
single  genus,  Pipunculus  (Pi-pun'cu-lus).  These  are  small  flies, 
with  very  large  heads  composed  almost  en- 
tirely of  eyes  (Fig.  577).  The  head  is  nearly 
spherical,  and  broader  than  the  thorax.  The 
abdomen  is  somewhat  elongate  with  the  sides 
nearly  parallel.  The  body  is  thinly  clothed 
with  hair  or  nearly  naked.  The  wings  are 
much  longer  than  the  abdomen,  and  when  at 
rest  they  lie  parallel  to  each  other  upon  it. 
(Fig.  578)  closely  resembles  that  of  some  of  the  Conopidae. 
Vein  III  is  three-branched.  The  last  branch  of  Vein  III  and 


FIG.  577.-  Pipun- 


The venation 


FIG.  578.— Wing  of  Pifunculus. 

the  first  branch  of  vein  V  approach  each  other  at  their  tips. 
Vein  Vs  coalesces  with  vein  VII,  for  nearly  its  entire  length. 
Veins  VII,  and  IX  coalesce  at  their  tips.  Cells  III  and  V 
are  long. 

The  flies  hover  in  shady  places.  They  are  sometimes 
found  on  flowers,  and  may  be  swept  from  low  plants ;  our 
most  common  species  measure  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
in  length,  not  including  the  wings.  The  larvae  so  far  as 
known  are  parasitic  upon  bugs. 

*  Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum,  No.  31. 


474 


THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


Family  PLATYPEZID.E  (Plat-y-pez'i-dae). 

The  Flat-footed  Flies. 

These  flies  resemble  the  House-fly  somewhat  in  appear- 
ance but  are  very  much  smaller.  They  hover  in  the  air  in 
shady  places,  and  alight  frequently  on  the  leaves  of  low 
plants,  where  they  run  about  in  circles  with  great  rapidity. 

The  head  is  hemispherical  or  spherical,  and  as  broad  as  or 
broader  than  the  thorax.  The  antennae  are  three-jointed, 
with  a  terminal  bristle.  The  legs  are 
short  and  stout,  and  the  tarsi  of  the  hinder 
Pa'r  are  °ften  very  broad  and  flat  (Fig. 
579)-  The  wings  are  rather  large,  and 
when  at  rest  lie  parallel  upon  the  abdo- 
men ;  the  axillary  excision  is  prominent, 
but  the  posterior  lobe  of  the  wing  is 
small  (Fig.  580) ;  the  alulets  are  minute. 

Vein    III     of     the    wings    is    three- 
branched  ;  veins  V,  and  Vs  either  coalesce 
FIG.  579.— Leg  of  puty-  throughout  or  separate  near  the  margin 

/«««,  forked  hairs  of  g    .  ~   «1T    •  •  ,-    -J ,      , 

leg  greatly  enlarged.          of  the  Wing.       Cell  V,  IS  Sometimes  divided 


FIG.  580  —Wing  of  Platypeza. 

by  a  cross-vein,  and   sometimes  not.     Cells  2d   III,  V,  and 
VIII  are  short. 

This   family  includes   but    few    species,  and    these   are 
usually  rare.     The  larvae  live  in  rotten  mushrooms. 


DIPTERA.  475 

Family  PHORID^E  (Phor'i-dae). 
The  Humpbacked  Flies, 

These  are  minute,  dark-colored,  usually  black  flies,  which 
can  easily  be  recognized  by  their  humpbacked  form  and 
the  peculiar  venation  of  the  wings.  Certain  species  are 
often  found  running  about  rapidly  on  windows,  others  on 
fallen  leaves.  Sometimes  they  are  seen  in  swarms  dancing 
up  and  down  in  the  air. 

The  head  is  small ;  the  thorax  large  and  humped  ;  and 
the  abdomen  rather  short.  The  antennae  are  apparently 


IX 

FIG.  581.— Wing  of  Pkora.. 

one-  or  two-jointed,  the  last  segment  with  either  a  dorsal  or 
a  terminal  bristle.  The  coxae  are  long ;  the  femora,  espe- 
cially of  the  hind  legs,  which  are  rather  long,  are  widened 
and  flattened.  The  wings  (Fig.  581)  are  large,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  two  strong  veins  near  the  costal  border,  which 
extend  but  a  short  distance  beyond  the  middle  of  the  wing. 
From  these  strong  veins  from  three  to  five  weak  ones  extend 
across  the  wing. 

The  larvae  feed  on  decaying  vegetable  matter,  dead 
insects,  snails,  etc.,  and  some  are  believed  to  be  parasitic 
upon  other  insects. 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Family  CONOPiD/£  (Co-nop'i-dae). 
The   Thick-head  Flies. 

With  the  members  of  this  family  the  head  is  large,  being 
broader  than  the  thorax.  The  body  is  more  or  less  elon- 
gate ;  sometimes  the  abdomen  has  a  long,  slender  pedicel 
like  that  of  certain  wasps.  The  body  may  be  naked  or 
thinly  clothed  with  fine  hair,  but  it  is  rarely  bristly. 

The  ocelli  may  be  either  present  or  absent.  The  an- 
tennae are  prominent,  and  project  forward ;  they  are  three- 
jointed  ;  and  the  third  segment  bears  either  a  dorsal  bristle 


Vlh+TX 
FIG.  582.— Wing-  of  Conors  ajfjUnis. 

or  a  terminal  style.  Vein  III  of  the  wings  (Fig.  582)  is  only 
three-branched.  The  last  branch  of  vein  III  and  the  first 
branch  of  vein  V  end  near  together  or  coalesce  at  their  tips. 
Cell  V,  is  divided  by  a  cross-vein.  Vein  V3  coalesces  with 
vein  VII,  for  nearly  its  entire  length.  Veins  VII,  and  IX 
coalesce  at  their  tips,  and  sometimes  for 
nearly  the  entire  length  of  vein  VII,. 

The  adult  flies  are  found  on  flowers. 
In  some  genera  the  abdomen  is  long,  with 
a  slender,  wasp-like  pedicel  (Fig.  583).  In 
others  the  abdomen  is  of  the  more  usual 
form>  The  jarvag  are  parasjt jC)  chiefly  upon 

bumblebees  and  wasps,  but  some  species  infest  locusts. 


DJPTERA.  477 

Family  CESTRID^;  (CEs'tri-dae). 
The  Bot-flies. 

This  family  includes  flies  that  are  large  or  of  medium 
size ;  most  of  the  species  resemble  bees  in  appearance ; 
some,  the  honey-bee ;  others,  bumblebees.  In  the  vena- 
tion of  the  wings  they  closely  resemble  the  Muscidae ;  but 
the  wings  are  usually  furnished  with  fine  transverse  wrinkles. 
They  are  most  easily  distinguished  from  the  Muscidae  by 
the  small  size  of  the  opening  of  the  mouth  and  the  rudi- 
mentary condition  of  the  mouth-parts,  the  proboscis  being 
rudimentary  and  the  palpi  usually  wanting. 

The  head  is  large,  with  the  face  broad.  The  antennae 
are  small,  three-jointed,  more  or  less  concealed  in  a  suban- 
tennal  cavity  or  grooves  ;  the  last  segment  bears  a  dorsal 
bristle.  Vein  III  of  the  wings  is  three-branched.  Cell  III6 
is  broadly  open  (Fig.  584),  or  is  narrowed  at  the  margin  of 


Vj  +  VII, 


FIG.  584.— Wing  of  Gastrcphilus. 

the  wing,  or  closed.  The  alulets  are  usually  large,  conceal- 
ing the  halteres  ;  but  sometimes  they  are  small. 

The  larvae  are  parasitic  upon  mammals.  The  best  known 
species  are  the  following  : 

The  Horse  Bot-fly,  Gastrophilus  equi  (Gas-troph'i-lus 
e'qui). — The  adult  fly  closely  resembles  the  honey-bee  in 


478  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

form  except  that  the  female  (Fig.  585)  has  the  end  of  the 
abdomen  elongate  and  bent  forward  under  the  body.  It  is 
most  often  seen  flying  about  horses,  which 
have  an  instinctive  fear  of  it.  The  eggs  are 
attached  to  the  hair,  chiefly  on  the  legs  and 
shoulders  of  the  horse.  The  larvae  are  licked 
off  by  the  horse  and  swallowed  with  its  food. 
FIG.  585.  "When  the  larvae  reach  the  stomach  they  fasten 
themselves  to  the  inner  coat  of  it,  and  remain  there  until 
full-grown.  Then  they  pass  from  the  animal  with  the  dung, 
and  crawl  into  some  protected  place,  where  they  transform 
within  a  puparium. 

The  Oxwarble,  Hypoderma  lineata  (Hyp-o-der'ma  lin- 
e-a'ta). — The  larva  of  this  species  is  the  common  pest  that 
lives  in  the  backs  of  cattle  just  beneath  the  skin.  The  adult 
lays  its  eggs  on  the  backs  of  cattle  ;  and  it  has  been  supposed 
that  the  young  larvae  penetrate  the  skin,  thus  reaching  the 
place  where  they  are  commonly  found.  But  Dr.  Cooper 
Curtice  has  recently  shown  that  the  larvae  are  licked  off 
from  the  back  by  the  cattle  and  swallowed.  He  found  the 
larvae  in  large  numbers  in  the  walls  of  the  oesophagus  in 
November;  later,  about  Christmas-time,  they  appeared  sud- 
denly, and  in  large  numbers  under  the  skin  of  the  back. 
The  course  of  their  migration  from  the  oesophagus  to  the 
skin  has  not  yet  been  traced.  The  greater  part  of  the 
growth  of  the  larva  is  made  within  the  tumor  beneath  the 
skin.  When  full-grown  it  passes  out  through  a  hole  in  the 
skin  and  undergoes  its  transformations  on  the  ground.  Dr. 
Curtice  has  also  shown  that  the  most  common  oxwarble  of 
this  country  is  Hypoderma  lineata  and  not  Hypoderma  bovis, 
as  has  been  supposed. 

The  Sheep  Bot-fly,  CEstrus  ovis  (GEs'trus  o'vis). — The 
eggs  of  this  species  are  laid  in  the  nostrils  of  sheep.  The 
larvae  pass  up  into  the  frontal  sinuses  and  into  the  horns 
when  they  are  present.  Here  they  feed  upon  the  mucus. 
They  are  very  injurious  to  sheep,  causing  vertigo  or  the 


DIPTERA. 


479 


disease  known  as  "  staggers."  When  full-grown  they  pass 
out  through  the  nostrils  and  undergo  their  transformations 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Other  species  infest  rabbits,  squirrels,  deer,  and  reindeer. 
One  that  lives  beneath  the  skin  of  the  neck  of  rabbits  is  very 
common  in  the  South. 

Family  MUSCID.E  (Mus'ci-dae). 
The  Muscids  (Mus'cids). 

The  form  of  the  more  typical  members  of  this  family  is 
well  shown  by  the  common  House-fly.  But  the  family  is  a 
very  large  one  and  includes  species  that  differ  greatly  in 
form.  These  differences  are  so  great  and  so  varied  that 
some  writers  divide  the  family  into  nearly  thirty  families. 
It  seems  to  us,  however,  to  be  better  to  consider  these 
divisions  of  subfamily  value.  The  following  characters  are 
presented  by  the  family  as  a  whole. 

The  antennae  (Fig.  586)  are  three-jointed  ;  the  third  seg- 
ment bears  a  dorsal  bristle.  The  frontal  suture  is  present 
(Fig.  587).  The  proboscis  is 
always  present.  Vein  II  of 
the  wings  may  be  present  or 
absent ;  vein  III  is  three- 
branched  ;  cells  V,  and  V,  are 
wanting  ;  the  branches  of  vein 
VII  coalesce  with  the  adjacent 
veins  (VII,  with  Vs,  and  VII, 
with  IX)  for  nearly  their 
entire  length.  The  pulvilli 
are  present,  and  the  empodia 
are  never  pulvilliform. 

As  this  family  includes  more  than  one  third  of  all  the 
known  Diptera,  it  usually  happens  that  a  large  proportion 
of  the  flies  in  a  collection  belong  to  it.  It  seems  necessary, 
therefore,  to  indicate  some  of  the  principal  divisions  of  the 


FIG.  586. 


FIG.  587. 


48o 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


family.  This  first  of  these  is  into  two  groups  of  subfamilies, 
and  is  based  upon  the  size  of  the  alulets.  The  division  is 
not  a  satisfactory  one ;  and  it  is  only  given  here  because  it 
is  commonly  employed  by  writers  on  the  Diptera,  and  a 
more  definite  one  has  not  yet  been  discovered. 

A.  The  alulets  large ;  face  with  a  depression  or  vertical  grooves 
beneath  the  antennae;  cell  Hie  closed  or  'narrowly  open,  except  in 
the  Anthomyiinae,  where  it  is  widely  open.  p.  480. 

CALYPTRATE  MUSCIDJE. 

A  A.  The  alulets  small  or  wanting;  form  of  face  varied;  cell  III5 
usually  widely  open.  p.  484 ACALYPTRATE  MUSCID^E. 

I.  CALYPTRATE  MUSCID^E  (Ca-lyp'trate). 

To  this  division  belong  our  most  familiar  representatives 
ot  the  family,  of  which  the  House-fly  and  the  flesh-flies  are 
good  illustrations.  As  a  rule  cell  III5  of  the  wings  is  closed 
or  narrowly  open  (Fig.  588) ;  but  in  the  last  subfamily  this 


FIG.  588.—  Wing  of  Mu 


cell  is  widely  open  (Fig.  589).  Five  subfamilies  are  classed 
here  ;  these  can  be  separated  by  the  following  table,  which 
is  based  on  one  given  by  Professor  Williston. 

A.  Cell  IIIS  of  the  wings  closed  or  more  or   less  narrowed  at   the 
margin  of  the  wing  (Fig.  588). 
B.  Antennal  bristle  wholly  bare.     p.  481  ............. 

BB.  Antennal  bristle  distinctly  pubescent  or  plumose. 


DIPTERA. 


481 


C.  Antennal  bristle  bare  near  the  tip.     p.  482.  .SARCOPHAGIN^E, 
CC.  Antennal  bristle  plumose  or  pubescent  to  the  tip. 

D.  Dorsum  of  abdomen  bristly  ;  legs  usually  elongate,    p.  482. 

DEXIINyE. 

DD.  Abdomen   not  bristly,  except   sometimes  somewhat    so 
near  the  tip.     p.  482  ............................  MUSCIN.E. 

AA.  Cell  III6  widely  open,  not  narrowed  at  the  margin  of  the  wing 
(Fig.  589).    p.  483  ...............................  ANTHOMYIINJE. 


FIG.  589.—  Wing  of  Lispe. 


Subfamily  TACHININ.E  (Tach-i-ni'nae). 
The  Tachina-flies  (Ta-chi'na). 

The  Tachina-flies  are  often  found  about  flowers  and  rank 
vegetation.  They  are  usually  short,  stout,  and  bristly, 
and  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  three  following  subfamilies  by 
the  bristle  of  the  antennae  being 
wholly  bare. 

The  larvae  are  parasitic,  chiefly 
within  caterpillars,  and  play  an  ex- 
ceedingly important  part  in  check- 
ing the  increase  of  noxious  insects. 
The  female  fastens  her  eggs  to  the 


n,rtuvm 

i  •  t  «.*».-f»J11if       /TTJrr       r/-u~>\  •       upon  fore  part  of  an  army-worm. 

Skin     Of    a    Caterpillar       (rig.     59°);       (From  the  author's    Report    for 

when  the   larvae  hatch   they  bore     l879-) 

their  way  into  their  host  and  live  there  till  they  are  full- 

grown. 


482  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Subfamily  SARCOPHAGUS  (Sar-coph-a-gi'nae). 

The  Flesh-flies. 

These  flies  resemble  those  of  the  preceding  subfamily  in 
general  appearance,  but  differ  in  having  the  bristle  of  the 
antenna  plumose  or  hairy  at  the  base ;  the  outer  end  of  the 
bristle  is  bare.  They  are  called  flesh-flies  because  many  of 
them  lay  their  eggs  on  the  bodies  of  dead  animals,  resem- 
bling in  habits  the  Blow-fly,  which  belongs  to  the  sub- 
family Muscinae.  The  larvae  of  other  species  live  in  dung, 
in  decaying  vegetable  matter,  and  in  fruits. 

Subfamily    DEXIIN.E  (Dex-i-i'nae). 

The  Nimble- flies. 

In  this  subfamily  the  bristle  of  the  antenna  is  plumose 
or  bristly  to  the  tip,  and  the  dorsum  of  the  abdomen  is 
bristly.  The  legs  are  usually  long.  These  flies  are  much 
less  common  than  the  members  of  the  allied  subfamilies  ;  the 
larvae  of  some  of  the  species,  at  least,  are  parasitic. 

Subfamily  MUSCINAE  (Mus-ci'nae). 
The  Typical  Muscids  (Mus1  cids}. 

With  these  flies,  as  in  the  preceding  subfamily,  the  bris- 
tle of  the  antenna  is  pubescent  or  plumose  to  the  tip;  but 
the  abdomen  is  not  bristly  except  near  the  tip.  Here  be- 
long many  of  the  best-known  members  of  the  Muscidae; 
among  the  more  important  ones  are  the  following : — 

The  House-fly,  Musca  domestica  (Mus'ca  do-mes'ti-ca). — 
This  is  the  most  familiar  representative  of  the  order  Diptera, 
as  it  abounds  in  our  dwellings.  It  lays  its  eggs  in  horse- 
manure,  a  single  female  laying  from  one  hundred  and  twenty 
to  one  hundred  and  sixty  eggs ;  the  larvae  become  full- 
grown  in  from  five  to  seven  days,  having  molted  twice  ;  the 
pupa  state  lasts  from  five  to  seven  days. 

The  Stable-fly,  Stomoxys  calcitrans  (Sto-mox'ys  cal'ci- 
trans). — This  species  resemble  the  House-fly  in  appearance  ; 


DIPTERA.  483 

but  it  has  its  mouth  fitted  for  piercing  and  for  sucking 
blood.  It  annoys  cattle  greatly ;  and  before  storms  and 
in  the  autumn  it  enters  our  dwellings  and  attacks  us.  The 
larvae  live  in  fresh  horse-manure. 

The  Horn-fly,  Hcematobia  serrata  (Haem-a-to'bi-a  ser- 
ra'ta). — This  is  an  exceedingly  annoying  pest  of  horned 
cattle,  which  has  spread  over  the  United  States  in  recent 
years.  It  resembles  the  House-fly  in  appearance ;  but  is 
less  than  half  as  large.  These  flies  cluster  in  great  numbers 
around  the  base  of  the  horns;  they  also  settle  upon  the 
back.  The  larvae  live  in  fresh  cow-manure. 

The  Screw-worm  Fly,  Campsomyia  macellaria  (Camp-so- 
my'i-a  mac-el-la'ri-a),  is  a  bright  metallic-green  fly,  with  four 
black  stripes  on  the  upper  part  of  the  thorax ;  it  measures 
about  one  third  of  an  inch  in  length.  This  terrible  pest 
resembles  the  flesh-flies  in  habits,  and  it  deposits  its  eggs 
in  wounds,  sores,  and  the  nostrils  and  ears  of  men  and 
cattle.  The  larvae  living  in  these  situations  often  cause 
serious  sickness,  and  sometimes  even  death. 

The  Blow-fly,  Calliphora  vomitoria  (Cal-liph'o-ra  vom-i- 
to'ri-a),  is  larger  than  the  House-fly,  and  black  in  color,  with 
a  steel-blue  abdomen.  It  flies  with  a  loud  buzzing  noise, 
and  lays  its  eggs  upon  meat,  cheese,  and  other  provisions. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  larvae 
become  full-grown  in  a  few  days. 

Subfamily  ANTHOMYIIN^E  (An-tho-my-i-i'nae). 

The  Anthomyiids  (An-tho-my'i-ids). 

The  members  of  this  subfamily  differ  from  other  Ca- 
lyptrate  Muscidae  in  having  cell  III5  widely  open,  vein  Vl+, 
nearly  straight  (Fig.  589),  and  not  bent  in  its  outer  part 
towards  the  tip  of  vein  III4+, ,  as  in  the  preceding  subfam- 
ilies. In  fact,  the  type  of  venation  is  the  same  as  that 
which  is  characteristic  of  nearly  all  of  the  Acalyptrate 
Muscidae ;  and  as  the  alulets  are  quite  small  in  some  of  the 
Anthomyiids,  it  is  difficult  for  the  beginner  to  recognize  all 


484  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

members  of  this  family  as  such.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
other  characters  than  those  we  now  know  for  separating  the 
Calyptrate  Muscidae  from  the  Acalyptrate  Muscidae  will 
soon  be  discovered. 

The  Anthomyiids  are  very  common  flies.  They  are 
found  on  leaves  and  flowers,  and  are  also  often  found  on  win- 
dows in  our  dwellings.  The  larvae  of  most  species  live  in 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  a  few  are  parasitic  on  other  in- 
sects, and  some  attack  growing  plants.  Among  the  latter 
are  certain  well-known  pests  infesting  garden  crops.  The 
more  important  of  these  are  the  following:  — 

The  Cabbage-root  Maggot,  Phorbia  brassier  (Phor'bi-a 
bras'si-cae).  —  This  insect  in  its  larval  state  feeds  on  the  roots 
of  cabbage,  radish,  turnip,  and  cauliflower;  it  also  attacks 
the  roots  of  various  weeds  belonging  to  the  same  family  of 
plants.  It  is  one  of  the  most  serious  pests  that  gardeners 
have  to  contend  with. 

The  Onion-fly,  Phorbia  ceparum  (P.  ce-pa'rum).  —  The 
larva  of  this  species  is  often  exceedingly  destructive  to 
onions,  consuming  the  bulb  of  the  plant. 

The  leaves  of  beet  are  often  mined  by  maggots  ;  and  it 
has  been  found  that  this  injury  is  due  to  several  species  of 
Anthomyiids.  The  most  common  of  these  is  Pegomyia 
(Peg-o-my'i-a  vi-ci'na). 


II.  ACALYPTRATE  MUSCIDAE  (Ac-a-lyp'trate). 

To  this  division  of  the  Muscidae  belong  a  very  large 
number  of  common  flies.  These  vary  greatly  in  form,  and 
represent  a  large  number  of  distinct  subfamilies.  As  a  rule 
cell  III&  of  the  wings  is  widely  open  (Fig.  591),  and  vein  II 
may  be  either  present  or  wanting.  The  alulets  are  usually 
very  small  or  rudimentary. 

The  American  species  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently 
studied  to  enable  us  to  give  a  table  for  separating  the  sub- 
families. We  will  merely  refer,  therefore,  to  a  few  of  the 
more  important  species. 


DTPTERA. 


485 


The    Dung-flies,   Scatophaga  (Sca-toph'a-ga),  are    rather 
in, 


FiG.591.— Wing-  of  Callopistria  annuities. 

slender  flies,  which  have  the  body  clothed  with  yellowish 

hair,  and  which  are  com- 

mon,    especially    about 

fresh     cow-dung.      They 

belong  to  the  Subfamily 

Cordylurince     (Cor-dyl-u- 

ri'nae). 

To  the  subfamilies  Or- 
talincz  (Or-ta-li'nas)  and 
Trypetince  (Try-pe-ti'nae) 
belong  many  common 
species  which  have  the 
wings  beautifully  marked 
with  dark  spots  or  bands. 
In  the  Ortalinae  vein  II 
extends  to  the  margin  of 
the  wing  in  the  usual 
way;  in  the  Trypetinae 
the  outer  part  of  vein  II 
turns  suddenly  towards 

the  margin  Of  the  wing,  FiG.S92.--The  Apple-maggot;  T,la™;  2,Pupa- 
onrl  of  fVi<»  cim<*  fim<»  rium;  3,  adult;  la,  head  of  larva  from  side, 
ailQ  at  tlie  Same  time  showing  mouth-parts  and  cephalic  spiracle; 

becomes   much    less   dis-      ^rahcTedof°iarvarva  fron>  below;  IC>  caudal 


486  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

tinct.     The  two  following  are  well-known  members  of  the 
Trypetinae. 

The  Apple-maggot,  Trypeta  pomonella  (Try-pe'ta  pom-o- 
nel'la.) — This  maggot  eats  into  the  pulp  of  apples,  boring 
tunnels  in  all  directions  through  the  fruit ;  it  attacks  espe- 
cially the  early  maturing  varieties.  When  full-grown  it  goes 
into  the  ground  to  transform.  The  adult  is  a  black  and 
white  fly,  with  banded  wings  (Fig.  592). 

The  Round  Goldenrod  Gall. — One  of  the  most  familiar 
of  abnormal  growths  on  plants  is  a  ball-like  enlargement  of 
|  the    stem    of    goldenrod    (Fig.    593). 

i^j^^i    This   is   caused  by  a   maggot,  which 
lives   within    it,  and    which    develops 
jOFv     into  a  pretty  fly  with  banded  wings. 
^HRI'        This  is    Trypeta  solidaginis  (T.   Sol-i- 
IP  dag'i-nis).     There  is  another  gall  on 

.-The  Round  Golden-  the  stem  of  goldenrod  which  is  liable 
to  be  mistaken  for  this  one,  but  which 
can  be  easily  distinguished  from  it.  It  is  more  elongate, 
and  is  hollow.  It  is  made  by  the  larva  of  a  Tineid  moth, 
Gelechia  gallcesolidaginis  (Ge-le'chi-a  gal-lae-sol-i-dag'i-nis) ;  it 
may  be  called  the  Elliptical  Goldenrod  Gall. 

The  Stem-eyed  Fly,  Sphyracephala  brevicornis  (Sphyr-a- 
ceph'a-la  brev-i-cor'nis)  is  a  very  singular  fly,  which  is  found 
on  the  leaves  of  skunk-cabbage.  On  each  side  of  the  head 
there  is  horn-like  process''  extending  outward,  upon  the  end 
of  which  the  eye  is  situated.  This  species  is  the  only  Amer- 
ican representative"  of  its  subfamily,  the  Diopsina  (Di-op- 
si'nae),  yet  described. 

The  Cheese-maggot,  PiopJiila  casei  (Pi-oph'i-la  ca'se-i)  is 
the  larva  of  a  small  black  fly,  less  than  half  the  size  of  the 
House-fly.  It  belongs  to  the  small  subfamily  Piophilina 
(Pi-oph-i-li'nae),  in  which  vein  II  of  the  wings  is  quite  closely 
united  with  vein  III.  This  fly  lays  its  eggs  on  cheese,  ham, 
and  bacon  ;  the  larvae  live  in  these  substances  and  are  often 
serious  pests.  They  are  commonly  known  as  "skippers  "  on 


DIPTERA.  487 

account  of  the  remarkable  jumps  which  they  can  make. 
This  is  accomplished  by  first  bringing  the  head  and  tail  ends 
together  and  then  suddenly  straightening  the  body.  In  this 
way  one  of  these  maggots  can  jump  several  inches. 

To  the  genus  Ephydra  (Eph'y-dra)  of  the  subfamily 
EphydrincB  (Eph-y-dri'nae)  belong  several  species  the  larvae 
of  which  live  in  marine  or  strongly  alkaline  waters.  In  the 
far  West  and  in  Mexico  these  larvae  occur  in  the  alkaline 
lakes  in  countless  numbers  ;  and  are  washed  ashore  in  such 
quantities  that  bushels  of  them  can  be  collected.  They  are 
gathered  by  the  Indians,  who  dry  them  and  use  them  for 
food,  which  they  call  Koo-cha'bee. 

The  Pomace-flies. — These  are  certain  small  yellowish 
flies  from  one-eighth  to  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  which 
are  very  common  about  the 
refuse  of  cider-mills,  decaying 
fruit,  and  fermenting  vats  of 
grape  pomace.  These  are  the 
pomace-flies  ;  and  their  larvae 
live  in  the  decaying  fruit. 
A  very  common  species  is 
the  Vine-loving  Pomace-fly, 
Drosophila  ampelophila  (Dro-soph'i-la  am-pe-loph'i-la)  (Fig. 

594). 

Family  HlPPOBOSClD^E  (Hip-po-bos'ci-dae). 
The  Louse-flies. 

The  louse-flies  are  very  abnormal  flies  that,  in  the  adult 
state,  live  like  lice,  parasitically,  upon  the  bodies  of  birds 
and  mammals.  Some  species  are  winged,  others  are  wing- 
less, and  still  others  are  winged  for  a  time  and  then  lose 
their  wings. 

The  body  is  depressed  ;  the  head  is  closely  attached  to 
the  thorax,  which  is  notched  to  receive  it.  The  antennae 
are  apparently  one-jointed,  with  a  terminal  bristle  or  style ; 
they  are  situated  in  a  depression  near  the  mouth.  The 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


frontal  suture  is  present.  The  legs  are  broadly  separated 
by  the  sternum  ;  they  are  comparatively  short  and  stout ; 
the  tarsal  claws  are  strong  and  are  often  furnished  with 
teeth.  The  winged  forms  vary  greatly  in  the  venation  of 
the  wings.  The  veins  near  the  costal  border  are  usually 
strong  while  the  others  are  weak.  Figure  595  represents 


+vn, 

FIG.  505 Wing  of  Olfersia. 

the  venation  of  Olfersia.  In  this  genus  veins  111,+,  and 
III4-f-s  separate  near  the  base  of  the  wing.  In  Hippobosca 
they  separate  at  or  beyond  the  middle  of  the  wing. 

Even  more  remarkable  than  the  parasitic  life  of  the  adult 
flies  is  the  mode  of  reproduction  of  these  insects.  The  egg 
is  hatched  within  the  body  of  the  parent,  the  larva  is  nour- 
ished in  this  position  till  it  is  full-grown,  and  is  not  born  till 
it  is  ready  to  change  to  a  pupa.  This  mode  of  reproduction 
is  also  characteristic  of  the  two  following  families,  which  are 
frequently  on  this  account  classed  with  this  one  as  a  division 
of  the  Diptera,  termed  Pupipara  (Pu-pip'a-ra). 

The  most  common  member  of  the  Hippoboscidae  is  the 
Sheeptick,  Melophagus  ovinus  (Me-loph'a-gus  o-vi'nus).  This 
is  a  wingless  species  (Fig.  596),  which  lives  upon 
sheep.  Hippobosca  equina  (Hip-po-bos'ca  e-qui'na) 
is  winged  and  lives  on  the  horse.  Olfersia  ameri- 
cana  (Ol-fer'si-a  a-mer-i-ca'na)  is  also  winged  and 
is  common  on  owls  and  other  birds.  The  species 
of  the  genus  Lipoptera  (Li-pop'te-ra)  are  winged 
at  first  and  live  on  birds  ;  later  they  migrate  to  quadrupeds, 


FIG.  596. 


DIPTERA.  489 

where    they  remain,  and  having   no  further   use   for   their 
wings,  they  lose  them. 

Family  NYCTERIBIID^E  (Nyc-ter-i-bi'i-dae). 
The  Bat-ticks. 

The  bat-ticks  are  wingless  parasites  of  bats.  The  body 
is  depressed  ;  the  head  is  small  and  folded  back  into  a  groove 
on  the  dorsum  of  the  thorax.  The  compound  eyes  are 
wanting;  the  ocelli  are  present  or  wanting.  The  legs  are 
long,  and  the  tarsal  claws  of  ordinary  form.  Although 
wingless  the  halteres  are  present. 

The  mode  of  reproduction  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
Hippoboscidae. 

Family  BRAULID.E  (Brau'li-dae). 

The  Bee-louse. 

This  is  a  minute  insect,  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in 
length,  which  is  parasitic  upon  the  Honey- 
bee (Fig.  597).  It  is  found  clinging  to  the 
thorax  of  queens  and  drones.  It  is  wing- 
less, and  also  lacks  halteres.  The  head  is 
large,  but  lacks  both  compound  eyes  and 
ocelli.  The  legs  are  comparatively  short ; 
the  last  segment  of  the  tarsus  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of 
comb-like  appendages.  Only  a  single  species  is  known  ; 
this  is  Braula  cceca  (Brau'la  cae'ca).  Its  mode  of  reproduc- 
tion is  similar  to  that  of  the  Hippoboscidae. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

Order  SlPHONAPTERA  (Siph-o-nap'te-ra). 
The  Fleas. 

The  members  of  this  order  are  practically  wingless,  the 
wings  being  represented  only  by  minute  scaly  plates.  The 
mouth-parts  are  formed  for  sucking.  The  metamorphosis  is 
complete. 

These  tiny  tormentors  are  best  known  to  us  in  the  adult 
state  \  for  it  is  only  during  this  period  that  they  annoy  us 
and  our  household  pets.  The  larvae  and  pupae  are  rarely 
observed  except  by  students  who  search  for  them. 

The  name  of  the  order  is  from  two  Greek  words  :  siphon^ 
a  tube  ;  and  apteros,  wingless.  It  refers  to  the  form  of  the 
mouth  and  to  the  wingless  condition  of  the  insects. 

In  our  more  common  fleas  the  body  of  the  adult  is  oval 
and  greatly  compressed,  which  allows  the  insect  to  glide 
through  the  narrow  spaces  between  the  hairs  of  its  host. 
The  integument  is  smooth,  quite  hard,  and  naked,  except 
that  there  are  many  strong  spines, 
which  are  arranged  with  great 
regularity  (Fig.  598),  and  thus  af- 
ford good  characters  for  distin- 
guishing the  different  species. 
The  smoothness  and  firmness  of 
the  body  makes  it  easy  for  the 
insect  to  escape  when  caught  be- 

e  Dog-flea  and  its  ,arva.tween    the  fingers    Qf    man     Qr    the 

teeth  of  lower  animals.     Doubtless  the  backward  projecting 

49o 


SIPHONAPTERA.  491 

spines  also  aid  them  in  their  efforts  to  escape,  as  every 
wriggle  of  the  body  pushes  it  forward.  When  once  out  of 
the  clutch  of  an  enemy,  they  quickly  leap  away. 

The  head  is  broadly  joined  to  the  thorax.  There  are  no 
compound  eyes  ;  but  on  each  side  of  the  head  there  is  a 
large  ocellus,  and  hidden  in  a  groove  behind  the  ocellus  is 
the  antenna.  The  mouth-parts  are  formed  for  piercing  and 
sucking  ;  the  sucking-tube  is  formed  of  the  upper  lip  and  the 
two  mandibles  ;  the  maxillae  are  small,  triangular  plates  and 
bear  long,  four-jointed  palpi  ;  the  labium  is  minute  and  bears 
a  pair  of  terminal,  three-jointed  palpi.  The  mesothorax  and 
metathorax  each  bears  a  pair  of  flat  scales,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  rudimentary  wings.  The  legs  are  long  and 
strong,  and  fitted  for  leaping  ;  the  hinder  pair  are  the  larg- 
est and  the  middle  pair  next  in  size. 

The  eggs  are  scattered  about  the  floors  of  dwellings  and 
in  the  sleeping-places  of  infested  animals.  The  larvae  are 
slender,  worm-like  creatures,  with  a  distinct  head  and  with- 
out legs  (Fig.  598).  They  have  biting  mouth-parts,  and  feed 
upon  the  decaying  particles  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter 
always  to  be  found  in  the  dirt  in  which  they  live.  When 
full-grown  the  larva  spins  a  cocoon  within  which  the  pupa 
state  is  passed. 

Of  the  domestic  animals  only  the  dog,  cat,  rabbit,  pigeons, 
and  poultry  have  fleas.  They  are  most  common  on  dogs 
and  pigeons.  But  the  species  of  fleas  do  not  appear  to  be 
so  strictly  limited  to  particular  animals  as  are  the  lice  and! 
some  other  parasites ;  for  the  species  that  commonly  infests 
dogs  and  cats  will  also  attack  man  without  hesitation,  and 
in  this  country  seems  to  be  more  troublesome  to  our  race 
than  the  Human-flea. 

To  rid  a  dog  or  cat  of  fleas  it  should  be  dusted  with 
Persian  insect  powder  (Pyrethrunt),  and  its  sleeping-place 
thoroughly  cleaned.  The  bedding  in  kennels  should  be  of 
some  substance  which  can  be  replaced  frequently,  as  shav- 
ings or  straw,  and  when  replaced  the  old  bedding  should  be 


492  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

burned,  and  the  floors  wet  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  some 
other  insecticide  that  will  destroy  the  eggs  and  larvae. 

In  regions  where  fleas  abound  much  relief  can  be  ob- 
tained by  the  use  of  rugs  on  the  floors  of  dwellings  instead 
of  carpets.  The  frequent  shaking  of  the  rugs  and  cleaning 
of  the  floors  will  prevent  the  breeding  of  these  pests  within 
the  house.  As  a  single  flea  will  inflict  many  bites,  it  often 
happens  that  a  house  will  seem  to  be  overrun  by  them  when 
only  a  few  are  present.  In  such  cases  a  careful  search  for 
and  capture  of  the  offenders  will  soon  remedy  the  evil.  We 
have  found  that  in  catching  fleas  greater  success  attends  our 
efforts  if  the  thumb  and  forefinger  be  wet  before  seizing  the 
flea,  and  the  insect  be  placed  in  a  dish  of  water  before  we 
attempt  to  destroy  it.  Otherwise  the  insect  is  apt  to  escape 
while  we  are  trying  to  destroy  it. 

People  that  suffer  from  the  attacks  of  these  pests  can 
also  gain  much  relief  by  dusting  the  upper  part  of  their 
stockings  each  morning  with  Persian  insect  powder,  and  by 
sprinkling  a  small  quantity  of  this  powder  between  the 
sheets  of  their  beds  at  night. 

This  order  contains  only  a  single  family,  the  Pulicidoe 
(Pu-lic'i-dae),  of  which  five  or  six  genera  and  about  twenty- 
five  species  are  now  known.  The  species  that  are  most  fre- 
quently observed  are  the  following  : — 

The  Dog-flea,  Ceratopsyllus  serraticeps  (Cer-a-to-psyl'lus 
ser-rat'i-ceps). — This  is  the  most  common  flea  that  infests 
dog,  cat,  and  man  in  this  country  (Fig.  598).  It  is  reddish 
brown  ;  the  lower  margin  of  the  head  and  the  hinder  margin 
of  the  prothorax  each  bear  on  each  side  from  seven  to  nine 
black,  tooth-like  spines. 

The  Human-flea,  Pulex  irritans  (Pu'lex  ir-ri'tans).  This 
species  lacks  the  comb-like  rows  of  black  spines  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  head  and  on  the  hinder  margin  of  the  prothorax. 
It  is  also  usually  darker  than  the  preceding  species,  being 
sometimes  pitchy  brown.  It  is  a  common  pest  in  dwellings 
in  Europe,  but  is  comparatively  rare  in  this  country. 


SIPHONAPTERA.  493 

The  Chigoe  (Chig'o)  or  Jigger,  Sarcopsylla  penetrans 
(Sar-co-psyl'la  pen'e-trans),  is  a  small  flea  found  in  the  West 
Indies  and  South  America,  which  often  causes  serious 
trouble  to  men  by  burrowing  beneath  the  skin  of  the  foot. 
It  is  the  fertile  female  that  does  this,  and  soon  after  enter- 
ing its  host  the  body  of  the  flee  becomes  distended  with 
eggs  and  acquires  the  size  of  a  pea. 

In  the  southern  United  States  the  names  Chigoe  and 
Jigger  are  improperly  applied  to  the  harvest-mites,  which 
are  the  immature  six-legged  forms  of  various  mites  that 
attach  themselves  like  ticks  to  the  skin  and  become  gorged 
with  blood. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 
Order  COLEOPTERA  (Co-le-op'te-ra). 

The  Beetles. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  a  pair  of  horny  wing-covers, 
called  elytra,  which  meet  in  a  straight  line  down  the  back,  and 
beneath  which  there  is  a  single  pair  of  membranous  wings. 
The  mouth-parts  are  formed  for  biting.  The  metamorphosis 
is  complete. 

Beetles  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  all  other  in- 
sects except  earwigs  by  the  possession  of  horny,  veinless 
wing-covers  which  meet  in  a  straight  line  down  the  back 
(Fig.  599);  and  they  differ  from  ear- 
wigs in  lacking  the  pincer  -  like  ap- 
pendages at  the  tail  end  of  the  body 
characteristic  of  those  insects  (see 
page  103).  Beetles  also  differ  from 
earwigs  in  having  a  complete  meta- 
morphosis. 

The  name  of  the  order,  Coleop- 
FlG-  599.  tera,  is  from  two  Greek  words:  coleos, 

a  sheath;  andfteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the  sheath-like 
structure  of  the  elytra  (el'y-tra)  or  wing-covers,  which  were 
formerly  believed  to  be  modified  wings. 

These  wing-covers  apparently  occupy  the  position  of 
the  fore  wings,  and  can  be  moved  somewhat  as  wings  are 
moved.  Their  structure,  however,  resembles  that  of  the 
body-wall  rather  than  that  of  wings  ;  and  in  some  beetles 
(e.g.,  Dytiscus)  rudiments  of  the  fore  wings  exist  beneath  the 
elytra. 

494 


COLEOPTERA.  495 

The  homology  of  the  elytra  is  most  easily  understood  by 
a  study  of  the  corresponding  parts  in  other  orders  of  in- 
sects. In  the  lower  orders  of  insects  there  exists  at  the 
base  of  each  wing  a  small  sclerite  ;  these  have  been  termed 
the  paraptera  (pa-rap'te-ra),  from  the  Greek  para,  beside, 
and  pteron,  a  wing.  In  some  of  the  orders  of  insects  the 
paraptera  of  the  mesothorax  are  in  the  form  of  a  cup-like 
scale  over  the  base  of  each  fore  wing,  and  are  termed  the 
tegul(B\  this  form  is  well  shown  by  most  Hymenoptera.  In 
the  Lepidoptera  they  are  even  more  prominent,  and  in  many 
cases  extend  back  a  considerable  distance  on  each  side ; 
those  of  this  order  have  been  named  the  patagia.  In  the 
Coleoptera  the  paraptera  of  the  mesothorax  reach  their 
greatest  development,  and  so  strongly  resemble  wings  that 
they  are  still  commonly  believed  to  be  the  fore  wings. 

The  hind  wings  are  membranous,  and  in  most  species  very 
efficient  organs  of  flight.  But  in  some  of  the  pre-eminently 
running  beetles  the  hind  wings  are  wanting,  and  the  elytra 
serve  only  as  a  protection  to  the  abdomen.  With  some  of 
these  insects  the  elytra  are  even  grown  together  where  they 
meet  on  the  middle  line  of  the  back.  Instances  of  this  kind 
are  not  uncommon  among  the  ground-beetles  and  the  dark- 
ling beetles. 

The  different  mouth-parts  are  very  evenly  developed  ; 
we  do  not  find  some  of  them  greatly  enlarged  at  the  ex- 
pense of  others,  as  in  several  other  orders  of  insects.  The 
upper  lip,  or  labrum,  is  usually  distinct ;  the  mandibles  are 
powerful  jaws  fitted  either  for  seizing  prey  or  for  gnawing; 
the  maxillae  are  also  well  developed  and  are  quite  compli- 
cated, consisting  of  several  distinct  pieces;  the  maxillary 
palpi  are  usually  prominent ;  and  the  lower  lip,  or  labium,  is 
also  well  developed  and  complicated,  consisting  of  several 
parts  and  bearing  prominent  labial  palpi. 

The  larvae  are  commonly  called  grubs.  They  are  usually 
furnished  with  six  thoracic  legs,  and  often  with  a  single 
proleg  at  the  caudal  end  of  the  body ;  some,  however,  as 


496  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

the   larvae   of  the   snout-beetles,   are   entirely   destitute  of 
jointed  legs.     The  pupae  have  the  partially  developed  elytra, 

•  wings,  and  legs  folded  upon  the  breast,  but  in  dis- 
tinct  sheaths   (Fig.    600).       These    insects    usually 
transform  in  rude  cocoons  made  of  earth  or  of  bits 
of  wood  fastened  together  by  a  viscid  substance  ex- 
creted by  the  larvae.     Many  wood-burrowing  species 
transform  in  the  tunnels  made  by  the  larvae  ;  and 
FIG.  600.  some   of   the  Dermestids  as  well   as   some   of  the 
lady-bugs  transform  in  the  last  larval  skin. 

Both  beetles  and  their  larvae  vary  greatly  in  their  habits  ; 
while  some  species  are  very  beneficial  to  man,  others  are 
extremely  noxious. 

More  than  eleven  thousand  species  of  beetles,  represent- 
ing upwards  of  eighty  families,  are  known  to  occur  in  Amer- 
ica north  of  Mexico.     The  following  synopsis  will  aid  the 
student  in  learning  the  relationships  of  these  families : — 
-*^ 

SYNOPSIS   OF   THE  COLEOPTERA. 
(See  page  $o$for  a  table  for  determining  specimens.) 

A.  THE  TYPICAL  COLEOPTERA. — Beetles  with  the  head  and  mouth- 
parts  of  the  ordinary  form. 

B.  THE   ISOMERA  (I-som'e-ra). — Typical  Coleoptera  in  which  the 
hind  tarsi  have  as  many  segments  as  the  others.     (There  are  a 
few  exceptions  to  this  character  among  the  Clavicornia.) 
C.  Isomera  in  which  the  fourth  and  fifth  tarsal  segments  are  not 
grown  together. 

D.  THE  ADEPHAGA  (A-deph'a-ga)  or  Predaceous  Beetles.  — 
Isomera  in  which  the  first  three  ventral  abdominal  segments 
are  grown  together,  and  the  first  of  these  is  divided  by  the 
hind  coxal  cavities  so  that  the  sides  are  separated  from  the 
very  small  medial  part. 

The  Tiger-beetles,    p.  516 Family  CICINDELIDJE.  , 

The  Ground-beetles,    p.  518 Family  CARABID^E.> 

The  Amphizoids.    p.  521 Family  AMPHIZOID^E. 

The  Haliplids.    p.  522 Family  HALIPLID^E. 

The  Predaceous  Diving-beetles,    p.  523.  Family  DYTISCIDJE.  • 
The  Whirligig  Beetles,    p.  525 Family  GYRINID^E. 


COLEOPTERA.  497 

DD.  THE  CLAVICORNIA  (Clav-i-cor'ni-a)  or  Clavicorn  Beetles. 

— Isomera  in  which  the  first  ventral  abdominal  segment  is 

visible  for  its  entire  breadth,  and  in  which  the  antennae  are 

usually  clavate  or  capitate,  but  not  lamellate. 

The  Water  Scavenger  Beetles,     p.  527. 

Family  HYDROPHILID^E. 

The  Beaver-parasite,    p.  529 Family  PLATYPSYLLIDA:. 

The  Leptinids.     p.  529 Family  LEPTINID^. 

The  Carrion-beetles,     p.  529 Family  SILPHIDVE. 

The  Scydmaenids.    p.  531 Family  SCYDM^ENID^E. 

The  Pselaphids.     p.  531 Family  PSELAPHIDJE. 

The  Rove-beetles,    p.  532 Family  STAPHYLINID^:. 

The  Feather-wing  Beetles,     p.  533. 

Family  TRICHOPTERYGIDJE. 

The  Hydroscaphids.    p.  533. Family  HYDROSCAPHID^E. 

The  Sphaeriids.     p.  533 Family  SPHJERIIDJE. 

The  Scaphidiids.    p.  533 Family  SCAPHIDIID^:. 

The  Phalacrids.     p.  534 Family  PH ALACRID^E. 

The  Corylophids.    p.  534 Family  CORYLOPHID^E. 

The  Lady-bugs,    p.  534 Family  COCCINELLIDJE. 

The  Endomychids.    p.  535 Family  ENDOMYCHIDJE. 

The  Erotylids.    p.  536 Family  EROTYLID/E. 

The  Colydiids.     p.  537 Family  COLYDIID^E. 

The  Rhyssodids.     p.  537 Family  RHYSSODID^:. 

The  Cucujids.     p.  537 Family  CUCUJIDJE. 

The  Cryptophagids.    p.  538 Family  CRYPTOPHAGID^E. 

The  Mycetophagids.     p.  538 Family  MYCETOPHAGID^E. 

The  Dermestids.    p.  538...    Family  DERMESTID^E. 

The  Histerids.    p.  541 Family  HISTERIDJE. 

The  Nitidulids.     p.  541 Family  NlTlDULlDJE. 

The  Trogositids.    p.  542 Family  TROGOSITID^E. 

The  Monotomids.    p.  542 Family  MONOTOMID^E. 

The  Lath  rid  i  ids.    p.  542 Family  LATHRIDIID^. 

The  Derodontids.    p.  542 Family  DERODONTIDJE. 

The  Pill-beetles,     p.  542 Family  BYRRHID^E. 

The  Georyssids.    p.  543 Family  GEORYSSID^E. 

The  Parnids.     p.   543 Family  PARNID.E. 

The  Heterocerids.     p.  543  Family  HETEROCERID/E. 

DDD.  THE  SERRICORNIA  (Ser-ri-cor'ni-a)  or  Serricorn  Beetles. 

— Isomera  in   which   the  first  ventral   abdominal    segment 

is  visible  for  its  entire  breadth,  and  in  which  the  antennae 

are  usually  serrate. 


498  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  Dascyllids.    p.  544 Family  DASCYLLIDJE. 

The  Rhipicerids.    p.  544 Family  RHIPICERID^E. 

The  Click-beetles,    p.  544 Family  ELATERID^E. 

The  Throscids.     p.  548 . ..." Family  THROSCID^E. 

The  Buprestids.     p.  548 Family  BUPRESTID^E. 

The  Fire-fly  Family,    p.  550.  .T. Family  LAMPYRIDJE. 

The  Malachiids.    p.  552 Family  MALACHIID^E. 

The  Checkered-beetles,    p.  552 Family  CLERIDJE. 

The  Ptinids.     p.  553 Family  PTINID^E. 

The  Cupesids.    p.  553 Family  CUPESID^E. 

The  Ship-timber  Beetle  Family,    p.  553. 

Family  LYMEXYLID^E. 

The  Ciids.     p.  554 Family  CIID^E. 

The  Sphindids.     p.  554 Family  SPHINDID^. 

DDDD.  THE  LAMELLICORNIA  (La-mel-li-cor'ni-a)  or  Lamelli- 
corn  Beetles. — Isomera  in  which  the  first  ventral  abdominal 
segment  is  visible  for  its  entire  breadth  and  in  which  the 
antennae  have  a  lamellate  club. 

The  Stag-beetles,     p.  554 Family  LUCANID^E. 

The  Scarabaeids.    p.  556 Family  SCARAB^EID^:. 

CC.  THE  PHYTOPHAGA  (Phy-toph'a-ga). — Isomera  in  which  the 
fourth  and  fifth  tarsal  segments  are  grown  together ;  the  fourth 
tarsal  segment  is  usually  very  small,  and  concealed  in  a  notch 
in  the  third  segment. 
The  Aberrant  Long-horned  Beetles,     p.  566. 

Family  SPONDYLIDJE. 

The  Long-horned  Beetles,    p.  567 Family  CERAMBYCID^E. 

The  Leaf -beetles,    p.  574 Family  CHRYSOMELID^E. 

The  Pea-weevil  Family,     p.  581 Family  BRUCHIDJE. 

BB.  THE  HETEROMERA  (Het-e-rom'e-ra)  or  Heteromerous  Beetles. 
— Typical  Coleoptera  in  which  the  fore  and  middle  tarsi  are  five- 
jointed,  and  the  hind  tarsi  four-jointed. 

The  Darkling  Beetles,     p.  582 Family  TENEBRIONID^E. 

The  ^Egialitids.     p.  584 Family  ^EGIALITID^. 

The  Cistelids.    p.  584 Family  CISTELIDJE. 

The  Othniids.     p.  584.. Family  OTHNIIDJE. 

The  Lagriids.     p.  584 Family  LAGRIID;E. 

The  Monommids.     p.   584 Family  MONOMMID/E. 

The  Melandryids.    p.  585 Family  MELANDRYID.E. 

The  Pythids.     p.  585 Family  PYTHID^E. 

The  CEdemerids.     p.   585 .Family  CEDEMERiDjE. 

The  Cephaloids.    p.  585 Family  CEPHALOID^E. 


COLEOPTERA. 


499 


The  Mordellids.    p.  586 Family  MORDELLID.E. 

The  Anthicids.     p.  586 Family  ANTHICID.E. 

The  Pyrochroids.    p.  586 Family  PYROCHROID^E. 

The  Blister-beetles,    p.   586 Family  MELOID^E. 

The  Rhipiphorids.    p.  589 Family  RHIPIPHORID^E. 

The  Stylopids.    p.  589  * Family  STYLOPID^E. 

AA.  THE  RHYNCHOPHORA  (Rhyn-choph'o-ra)  or  Snout- Beetles. — 
Beetles  in  which  the  head  is  more  or  less  prolonged  into  a  beak, 
and  in  which  the  palpi  are  short  and  rigid. 

The  Rhinomacerids.    p.  590 Family  RHINOMACERID;E. 

The  Rhynchitids.    p.  591 Family  RHYNCHITID^:. 

The  Leaf-rolling  Weevils,    p.  591   Family  ATTELABID^E. 

The  Byrsopids.    p.  591   Family  BYRSOPID^E. 

The  Scarred  Snout-beetles,    p.  592 Family  OTIORHYNCHID^E. 

The  Curculios.     p.  593 Family  CURCULIONID^E. 

The  Brenthids.    p.  594 Family  BRENTHID;E. 

The  Bill-bugs,     p.  595 Family  CALANDRID^E. 

The  Engraver-beetles,     p.  596 Family  SCOLYTID^E. 

The  Anthribids.    p.  598 Family  ANTHRIBID^E. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  COLEOPTERA. 

{For  Advanced  Students.) 

In  order  to  use  the  table  for  determining  the  families  of  beetles  it 
is  necessary  that  the  student  should  become  familiar  with  certain 


FIG.  601.— Head  of  Harpalus :  a,  dorsal  aspect ;  6,  ventral 

aspect;   i,  occiput;  2  epicranium;  3.  eye;  5,  clypeus;  6,      FIG.  602.  —  Head  and  pro- 
gula;  7,  antenna;  8,  labrum;  10,  mandibles;  \id,  maxillary         thorax  of  Rhynchophorus: 
palpus;  IT/,  palea  or  outer  lobe  of  maxilla;  12*,  submen- 
tum;    i2<t,  1; 
suture. 


, 

labial  palpus;   cs,    clypeal    suture;  g-s,    gular 


imeron;/. 


xa;  em,  epimeron; 
femur;  gs,  gular  sutur 
•?.  prosternum 


terms  not  defined  in  the  discussion  of  the  external  anatomy  of  insects 
on  pages  56-67.  The  following  notes  are  therefore  given  as  a  supple- 
ment to  that  discussion. 

The  Head.  —  Two  of  the  sclerites  that  enter  into  the  composition 


5oo 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


of  the  external  wall  of  the  head  are  frequently  referred  to  in  descrip- 
tions of  beetles;  these  are  the  clypeus  and  the  gula.  The  clypeus 
(clyp'e-us)  is  situated  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  head,  and  is  the  sclerite 
to  which  the  labrum  is  attached.  (Fig.  601,  a,  5.)  The  gula  (gu'la) 
is  the  central  portion  of  the  ventral  wall  of  the  head,  and  is  the  part 
which  bears  the  labium  (Fig.  601,  b,  6).  The  sutures  which  bound  the 
gula,  one  on  each  side,  are  termed  the  gular  sutures  (Fig.  601,  b,gs). 
In  the  Rhynchophora  the  gula  appears  to  be  wanting,  and  there  is  a 
single  suture  on  the  middle  line  of  the  head  (Fig.  602, gs) ;  in  this  case 
the  gular  sutures  are  said  to  be  confluent.  The  suture  which  separates 
the  clypeus  from  the  sclerite  immediately  behind  it  (the  epicranium) 
is  termed  the  clypeal  suture  (Fig.  601,  a,  cs). 

The  Antenna. — The  more  common  types  of  antennae  are  named 
and  figured  on  page  60.  But  it  is  necessary  to  define  two 
other  terms  here.  In  many  insects  the  first  segment  of  the 
antenna  is  long  and  the  antenna  is  bent  suddenly  at  the 
joint  between  the  first  and  second  segments ;  such  antennae 
are  said  to  be  elbowed  <yc  geniculate  (ge-nic'u-late).  In  some 
pectinate  antennae  the  tooth-like  processes  are  very  long, 
giving  the  antenna  a  more  or  less  fan-like  appearance ;  such 
antennae  are  defined  ssflabellate  (fla-bel'late)  (Fig.  603). 
FIG.  603.  The  Mouth-parts. — The  labrum  and  mandibles  are  suffi- 

ciently described  on  page  61.  The  parts  of  the  maxillae  are  repre- 
sented in  Figs.  604,  605,  and  606;  of  these  there  are  five  primary 


FIG.  604.— Maxilla  of  Cicin- 
dela. 


FIG.  605. — Ventral  aspect  of 
maxilla  of  Hydropkilus. 


FIG.  606.— Dorsal  aspect  of 
maxilla  of  Hydrofhilus. 


parts  and  three  appendages.  The  primary  parts  are  the  cardo  or  hinge 
(a),  the  stipes  (sti'pes)  or  footstalk  (b),  the palpifer  (pal'pi-fer)  or  pal- 
pus-bearer (c),  the  subgalea  (sub-ga'le-a)  or  helmet-bearer  (e),  and  the 
lacinia  (la-cin'i-a)  or  blade  (g).  The  appendages  are  the  maxillary 
palpus  or  feeler  (d},\hzgalea  (ga'le-a)  or  outer  lobe  or  superior  lobe 
(/,/),  and  the  digitus  (dig'i-tus)  or  finger  (h). 


COLEOPTERA.  5°! 

The  parts  of  the  maxilla  to  which  reference  is  most  often  made  are 
the  palpus  and  the  galea.  The  number  and  form  of  the  segments  of 
the  palpus  are  much  used  in  descriptions  ;  as  is  also  the  presence  or 
absence  of  the  galea.  When  the  galea  is  developed  as  a  distinct  ap- 
pendage, the  maxilla  is  said  to  be  bilobed,  the  galea  being  termed  the 
outer  lobe,  and  the  lacinia,  or  blade,  the  inner  lobe  (Fig.  604).  When 
the  galea  is  not  developed  so  as  to  appear  as  an  appendage  the 
maxilla  is  said  to  have  but  one  lobe. 

Much  use  is  made  of  the  form  of  the  parts  of  the  labium  or  lower 
lip  in  descriptions  of  beetles.  When  fully  developed  the  labium  con- 
sists of  three  principal  parts  and  a  pair  of  appendages.  The  principal 
parts  are  the  submentum,  the  mentum,  and  the  ligula  ;  the  appendages 
are  the  labial  palpi.  The  basal  part  of  the  labium,  the  part  which  is 
joined  to  the  gula,  is  the  submentum  (Fig.  607,  sm). 
By  an  unfortunate  error  this  sclerite  is  almost  in- 
variably described  in  works  on  the  Coleoptera  as  the 
mentum.  This  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  the 
student  when  using  any  of  the  older  books  on  this 
subject.  The  intermediate  portion  of  the  labium  is  FlG,-  607.  —  Labium 

of  Creophilus  :  sm, 

the  mentum  (Fig.  607,  m);  and  the  distal  portion  submentum;  m, 
the  ligula.  The  ligula  is  a  compound  organ  ;  but  JSSwT  V^'giossa, 
in  beetles  the  sutures  between  the  different  sclerites  ^'  Para£lossa- 
of  which  it  is  composed  are  usually  obsolete.  Three  parts,  however, 
are  commonly  distinguished,  a  central  part,  which  is  sometimes 
divided  at  the  tip,  thegtossa  (Fig.  607,^-),  and  two  parts,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  glossa,  the  paraglossa  (Fig.  607,  p).  The  part  on  each  side 
which  bear  the  palpus  is  termed,  when  it  is  distinct,  the  palpiger. 

The  Thorax. — Each  segment  of  the  thorax  is  composed  of  several 
sclerities.  The  shape  and  relative  position  of  these  sclerites  afford 
characters  which  are  much  used  in  classification.  Figure  608  is  a  dia- 
grammatic representation  of  what  is  considered  the  typical  arrange- 
ment of  these  parts  in  each  of  the  thoracic  segments.  Each  segment 
of  the  thorax  is  a  ring,  which  is  divided  into  four  parts:  a  dorsal,  a 
ventral,  and  two  lateral.  The  dorsal  part  is  named  the  notum  (no'tum) 
or  tergum  (ter'gum) ;  each  lateral  part  the  pleurum  (pleu'rum) ;  and 
the  ventral  part  the  sternum  (ster'num). 

When  the  notum  or  sternum  of  a  particular  thoracic  segment  is  to 
be  indicated,  it  is  done  by  the  use  of  one  of  the  prefixes  pro,  meso,  or 
meta.  In  this  way  are  formed  the  terms  pronotum,  mesonotum,  meta- 
notum,prosternum,  mesosternum  and  metasternum;  which  are  applied 
to  the  nota  and  sterna  of  the  prothorax,  mesothorax,  and  metathorax 
respectively. 


502 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


The  tergum  or  dorsal  wall  of  each  thoracic  segment  is  composed 
typhically  of  four  sclerities.  These  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  linear  series  (Figs.  608,  609). 
They  are  named,  beginning  with  the  first  or 
most  cephalic,  prcescutum  (prae-scu'tum)  (a), 
scutum  (scu'tum)  (b),scutellum  (scu-tel'lum)  (c), 
and  postscutellum  (post-scu-tel'lum)  (d).  In 
the  prothorax  of  beetles  the  sutures  between 
these  four  sclerites  are  obsolete,  the  pronotum 
appearing  to  be  composed  of  a  single  sclerite  (Fig.  609,  14).  The 
mesonotum  and  metanotum  are  usually  covered  by  the  wings  and 


FIG.  608.— Diagram  of  the 
fixed  pans  of  a  thoracic 
segment. 


FIG.  609— Dorsal  aspect  of  the  thorax  of  a 
beetle;  14,  pronotum;  15,  mesonotum;  16, 
metanotum.  Dysticus^  dissected.  (After 
Audouin.) 


FIG.  610. — Figure  of  a  beetle, 
showing  the  scutellum. 


elytra,  excepting  the  scutellum  of  the  mesothorax,  which  is  usually 
quite  conspicuous,  appearing  as  a  more  or  less  triangular  piece  be- 
tween the  elytra  at  their  base  (Fig.  610).  As  this  is  the  only  one  of 
the  three  scutella  that  is  usually  seen,  it  is  termed  the  scutellum. 

Each  pleurum  or  lateral  part  of  each  thoracic  segment  is  composed 
chiefly  or  entirely  of  two  sclerites,  arranged  more  or  less  obliquely. 
The  first  of  these  (Fig.  608,  <?)  is  the  eptsternum  (ep-i-ster'num),  the 
second  (Fig.  608,  f)  is  the  epimeron  (ep-i-me'ron).  A  third  sclerite 
(Fig.  608, £•)  is  sometimes  present  near  the  dorsal  end  of  the  epister- 
num;  this  is  the  parapteron  (pa-rap'te-ron.)  Paraptera  have  not  been 
found  in  the  prothorax.  In  beetles  the  paraptera  of  the  mesothorax 


COLEOPTERA. 


503 


are  greatly  developed  ;  they  project  from  the  body  wall,  with  which 
they  are  hinged,  and  constitute  the  wing-covers  or  elytra.  The  par- 
aptera  of  the  mesothorax  are  concealed. 

Each  sternum  or  ventral  part  of  each  thoracic  segment  is  composed 


to. 


FIG.  611. — Ventral  aspect  of  a  beetle,  Enchroma  gigantea:  f, 
Head;  2°,  gena  of  the  epicranium;  3,  eye;  7,  antenna;  //, 
thorax;  14,  prothorax;  14°,  proepisternum  or  episternum  of 
the  prothorax;  14',  proepimeron or  epimeron  of  the  prothorax; 
14',  prpsternum;  15,  mesothorax;  15',  mesoepisternum;  15', 
mesoepimeron;  15',  mesosternum;  16,  metathorax;  16",  meta- 
episternum;  i6f.  metaepimeron;  16',  metasternum;  i611,  ante- 
coxal  piece  of  the  metasternum;  17*,  coxa;  17*',  trochantin; 
17",  trochanter;  17°,  femur;  i7d,  tibia;  17',  tarsus;  17'",  tarsal 
claws;  i7ea,  pulvilli;  18,  elytron. 

of  a  single  sclerite  (Fig.  608,  /.)  As  indicated  above,  the  three  sterna 
are  designed  as  the  prosternum,  mesosternum,  and  metasternum, 
respectively. 

In  some  beetles  the  metasternum  is  divided  into  two  unequal  por- 


504 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


tions  by  a  suture  which  extends  transversely  a  short  distance  in  front 
of  the  caudal  margin  ;  the  smaller  sclerite  which  borders  the  posterior 
coxae  in  front  and  often  passes  between  them  is  called  the  ante-coxal 
piece  of  the  metasterum  (Fig.  6n,  16  /'). 

The  openings  in  the  thoracic  segments  in  which  the  legs  are  in- 
serted are  termed  the  coxal  cavities.  Much  use  is  made  in  the  classi- 
fication of  beetles  of  the  form  of  the  coxal  cavities  of  the  prothorax. 
When  the  epimera  of  the  prothorax  extend  behind  the  coxae  and 
reach  the  prosternum,  the  coxal  cavities  are  said  to  be  closed  (Fig.  612) ; 


FIG.  612. — Prothorax  of 
Harpalus:  c,  coxa  ;  em, 
epimeron  ;  es,  epister- 
num;  f,  femur  ;  «,  pro- 
notum  ;  s,  s,  s,  proster- 
num. 


FIG.  613.— Prothorax  of 
Penthe ;  c,  coxa ;  cc, 
coxal  cavity;  f,  femur; 
j,  prosternum;  /,  tro- 
chanter. 


FIG  614. 


when  the  epimera  do  not  extend  behind  the  coxae  to  the  prosternum, 
the  coxal  cavities  are  described  as  open  (Fig.  613). 

The  Legs. — The  parts  of  the  leg  are  described  on  page  62.  In  ad- 
dition to  what  is  said  there  it  should  be  noted  that  in  beetles  the 
coxae  of  the  hind  legs  are  frequently  broad  plates  which  appear  to 
belong  to  the  fixed  parts  of  the  thorax,  differing  greatly  in  form  from 
the  fore  and  middle  coxae  (Fig.  611,  I7a). 

In  many  beetles  there  is  a  small  sclerite  which  is  supposed  to  be  an 
appendage  of  the  coxa ;  this  is  the  trochantin  (tro-chan'tin) ;  the  tro- 
chantins  of  the  fore  and  hind  coxae  are  represented  in  Fig.  6u,and 
are  lettered  I7al. 

The  student  should  understand  clearly  the  numbering  of  the  seg- 
ments of  the  tarsi.  In  counting  these  segments  the  claws  borne  by 
the  last  segment  are  not  included,  but  the  segment  that  bears  these 
claws  is  counted.  This  fact  should  be  carefully  noted.  We  have 
found  that  students  are  very  apt  to  omit  counting  this  segment,  espe- 
cially when  it  differs  in  form  from  the  preceding  segments.  Two  of 
the  more  common  types  of  the  tarsi  of  beetles  are  represented  in  Fig. 
614,  with  the  segments  numbered. 

Students  wishing  to  carry  their  study  of  beetles  beyond  the  scope  of 
this  text-book  should  procure  the  "  Classification  of  the  Coleoptera  of 


COLEOPTERA.  505 

North  America,"  by  LeConteand  Horn.  This  work  can  be  purchased 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  American  Entomological  Society,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.  In  the  following  pages  we  have  followed  closely  the  classification 
proposed  by  these  authors,  and  have  made  free  use  of  the  character- 
izations given  by  them  ;  hence  it  will  be  easy  for  a  student  to  pass 
from  a  study  of  this  chapter  to  the  use  of  that  indispensable  work. 

TABLE   FOR   DETERMINING  THE   FAMILIES   OF   THE 
COLEOPTERA.* 

A.  Head  not  prolonged  into  a  narrow  beak ;  palpi  always  flexible ; 
two  gular  sutures  at  least  before  and  behind  (Fig.  601)  ;  prosternal 
sutures  distinct  (Fig.  612) ;  the  epimera  of  the  prothorax  not  meet- 
ing on  the  middle  line  behind  the  prosternum  (Fig.  612). 

TYPICAL  COLEOPTERA. 

B.  Hind  tarsi  with  at  least  as  many  segments  as  the  others. 

C.  Tarsi   usually  apparently  four-jointed,  the  fourth  segment 

being  reduced  in  size  so  as  to  form  an  indistinct  segment  at 

the  base  of  the  last  segment,  with  which  it  is  immovably  united 

(Fig.  615,  4)  ;  the  first  three  segments  of  the  tarsi  dilated  and 


FIG.  615.  FIG.  616.  FIG.  617. 

brush-like  beneath;  the  third  segment  bilobed.  In  a  single 
family,  the  Spondylidae,  the  fourth  segment  of  the  tarsus, 
although  much  reduced  and  immovably  united  with  the  fifth, 
is  distinctly  visible,  the  first  three  segments  are  but  slightly 
dilated,  and  the  third  is  either  bilobed  or  not  (Fig.  616,  a 

and  6) PHYTOPHAGA. 

D.  Fourth  segment  of  tarsus  distinctly  visible  ;  segments  of 
antennae  with  deep  impressions  containing  the  organs  of 
special  sense  (Fig.  617).  p.  566 SPONDYLIDJE. 

*  This  table  is  based  largely  on  the  tables  given  by  Le  Conte  and  Horn. 
Aid  was  also  derived  in  its  preparation  from  the  table  of  European  Coleop- 
tera  by  L.  Redtenbacher. 


506  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

DD.  Fourth  segment  of  tarsus  inconspicuous  ;  organs  of  spe- 
cial sense  of  antennae  diffused.  This  group  contains  three 
families,  which  are  so  connected  by  intermediate  forms  that 
it  is  not  easy  to  separate  them.  The  following  characters 
will  aid  the  student  in  separating  the  more  typical  forms  : 
E.  Body  elongate;  antennae  almost  always  long,  often  as 
long  as  the  body  or  longer.  The  larvae  are  borers,  p.  567. 

CERAMBYCID^E. 

EE.   Body  short  and  more  or  less  oval ;  antennae  short. 
F.    Front  prolonged  into  a  broad  quadrate  beak;  elytra 
rather  short,  so  that  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  is  always 
exposed.    The  larvae  live  in  seeds,     p.  58i..BRUCHio^E. 
FF.  Front  not  prolonged  into  a  beak ;  usually  the  tip  of 
the  abdomen  is  covered  by  the  elytra.     Both  larvae  and 
adults  feed  on  the  leaves  of  plants,     p.  574. 

CHRYSOMELID^E. 

CC.  Tarsi  varying  in  form,  but  when  five-jointed  not  of  the  type 
described  under  C,  the  joint  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  seg- 
ments being  flexible. 

D.  Ventral  part  of  the  first  segment  of  the  abdomen  divided 
by  the  hind  coxal  cavities,  so  that  the  sides  are  separated 
from  the  very  small  medial  part. 

E.  Metasternum  with  an  antecoxal  piece,  separated  by  a 
well-marked  suture  reaching  from  one  side  to  the  other, 
and  extending  in  a  triangular  process  between  the  hind 
coxae. 

F.  Antennae  eleven-jointed  ;  hind  coxae  mobile,  and  of  the 
usual  form  ;  habits  terrestrial. 
G.  Antennae  inserted  on  the  front  above  the  base  of  the 

mandibles,     p.  516...* CICINDELID^E. 

GG.  Antennae  arising  at  the  side  of  the  head  between 
the  base  of  the  mandibles  and  the  eyes.     p.  518. 

CARABID^E. 

FF.  Antennae  ten-jointed ;  hind  coxae  fixed  and  greatly 
expanded  so  as  to  conceal  the  basal  half  of  the  hind 
femora  and  from  three  to  six  of  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments; habits  aquatic,  p.  522 HALIPLID^E. 

EE.  Metasternum  either  with  a  very  short  antecoxal  piece, 
which  is  separated  by  an  indistinct  suture,  and  which  is 
not  prolonged  posteriorly  between  the  coxae,  or  without 
an  antecoxal  piece. 

F.  Metasternum  with  a  very  short  antecoxal  piece,    p.  521- 

AMPHIZOID^E. 


COLEOPTERA.  507 

FF.  Metasternum  without  an  antecoxal  piece. 
G.  Legs  fitted  for  swimming. 

H.  With  only  two  eyes.     p.  523 DYTISCID^E. 

HH.  With  four  eyes,  two  above  and  two  below,     p. 

525 GYRINIDJE. 

GG.  Legs  fitted  for  walking,     p.  537 RHYSSODID^E. 

DD.  Ventral  part  of  the  first  segment  of  the  abdomen  visible 
for  its  entire  breadth. 

E.  Antennae  with  a  lamellate  club  (Fig.  74,  8,  page  60). 
F.  Plates  composing  club  of  antennae  not  capable  of  close 
apposition,  and  usually  not  flattened,     p.  554. 

LUCANID^E. 
FF.  Plates  composing  club  of  antennae  capable  of  close 

apposition,  and  flattened,    p.  556 SCARAB^EID^E. 

EE.  Antennae  either  clubbed  or  not,  but  when  clubbed  not 
lamellate. 

F.  Elytra  short,  leaving  the  greater  part  of  the  abdomen 
exposed  ;  the  suture  between  the  elytra  when  closed 
straight;  wings  present,  and  when  not  in  use  folded 
beneath  the  short  elytra ;  the  dorsal  part  of  the  abdom- 
inal segments  entirely  horny. 
G.  Abdomen  flexible,  and  with  seven  or  eight  segments 

visible  below,     p.  532 STAPH YLINIDJE. 

GG.  Abdomen  not  flexible,  and  with  only  five  or  six 

ventral  segments  visible,    p.  531 PSELAPHID^E. 

FF.  Elytra  usually  long,  covering  the  greater  part  of  the 
abdomen  ;  when  short  the  wings  are  wanting,  or  if  pres- 
ent are  not  folded  under  the  short  elytra  when  at  rest; 
the  dorsal  part  of  the  abdominal  segments  partly  mem- 
branous. 
G.  Hind  tarsi  five-jointed. 

H.  Antennae  elbowed,  and  clavate. 

I.  Elytra  truncate  behind,  leaving  two  segments  of 
the  abdomen  uncovered,     p.  541 HISTERID^E. 

II.  Elytra  entire,    p.  553 PTINIDJE. 

HH.  Antennae  rarely  elbowed,  and  then  not  clavate. 

I.  Maxillary  palpi  as  long  as  or   longer  than  the 
antennae,     p.  527 HYDROPHILID^E. 

II.  Maxillary  palpi  much  shorter  than  the  antennae. 
J.  Tarsal  claws  very  large  ;  the  first  three  abdom- 
inal segments  grown  together  on   the  ventral 
side.    p.  543 PARNIDJE. 


508  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


JJ.  Tarsal  claws  of  usual  size ;  ventral  abdominal 
segments  usually  free  ;  sometimes  (Buprestidge) 
the  first  two  are  grown  together. 
K.  Abdomen  with  only  five  ventral  segments. 
L.  Femur  joined  to  the  apex  or  very  near  the 
apex  of  the  trochanter.    p.  553.  ..PTINID^E. 
LL.   Femur  joined   to  the  side  of  the  tro- 
chanter. 

M.  Anterior  coxae  globular  or  transverse, 
usually  projecting  but  little  from  the 
coxal  cavity. 

N.   Anterior  coxae   transverse,  more  or 
less  cylindrical. 

O.  Posterior  coxae  grooved  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  femora. 
P.  Legs   stout,   retractile;   tibiae  di- 
lated, usually  with  a  furrow  near  the 
outer  end  for  the  reception  of  the 
tarsi ;  tibial  spurs  distinct,     p.  542. 
BYRRHID^E. 

PP.   Tibiae  slender,  with  small  and 
sometimes  obsolete  terminal  spurs, 
or  without  spurs. 
Q.  Head  constricted  behind  ;  eyes 

smooth,    p.    553 CUPESIDGE. 

QQ.  Head  not  constricted  behind  ; 
eyes  granulated,     p.  544. 

DASCYLLID^E. 

OO.  Posterior  coxae  flat;  not  grooved 
for  the  reception  of  the  femora. 
P.  Tarsi   more  or  less   dilated,   first 
segment  not  short,     p.  541. 

NlTIDULIDGE. 

PP.    Tarsi    slender,    first    segment 

short,    p.  542 TROGOSITIDA;. 

NN.  Anterior  coxae  globular. 
O.  Prosternum  with  a  process  which 
extends  backward  into  a  groove  in 
the  mesosternum. 

P.  The  first  two  abdominal  segments 
grown  together  on  the  ventral  side, 
p.  548 BUPRESTIDGE. 


COLEOPTERA.  509 

PP.  Ventral  segments  free. 

Q.  Prothorax  loosely  joined  to  the 

mesothorax;  front  coxal  cavities 

entirely  in  the  prosternum.  p.  544. 

ELATERIDJE. 

QQ.  Prothorax    firmly  joined    to 
the  mesothorax ;  front  coxal  cav- 
ities closed  behind  by  the  meso- 
sternum.    p.  548. .  .THROSCID^. 
OO.  Prosternum  without  a  process  re- 
ceived by  the  mesosternum,  although 
it  may  be  prolonged  so  as  to  meet 
the  mesosternum. 

P.  Posterior  coxae  contiguous,  p.  534. 
PHALACRID^E. 

PP.  Posterior  coxae  separated. 
Q.  Body  very  depressed;   middle 
coxal  cavities  not  closed  exter- 
nally by  a  meeting  of  the  meso- 
sternum andmetasternum.  p.  537. 
CUCUJIDA:. 

QQ.  Body  more   or  less  convex; 
middle  coxal  cavities  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  the  sterna. 
R.    Prosternum    not   prolonged 
behind,     p.  538. 

MYCETOPHAGID^E. 
RR.   Prosternum    prolonged 
meeting  the  mesosternum. 
S.  Anterior  coxal  cavities  open 
behind,     p.  538. 

CRYPTOPHAGID^E, 
SS.   Anterior    coxal    cavities 
closed  behind,     p.  536. 

EROTYLID/E. 

MM.  Anterior  coxae  conical,  and  projecting 
prominently  from  the  coxal  cavities. 
N.    Posterior  coxae  dilated    into   plates 
partially  protecting  the  femora,  at  least 
at  their  bases. 

O.     Antennae     serrate    or    flabellate. 
p.  544 RHIPICERID^:. 


510  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


OO.  Antennae  with  the  last  three  seg- 
ments forming  a  large  club.  p.  538. 
DERMESTID^E. 

OOO.  Antennae  with  the  last  three 
segments  somewhat  larger  than  the 
preceding,  but  not  suddenly  en- 
larged, p.  542 DERODONTIDJE. 

NN.  Posterior  coxae  not  dilated  into  plates 

partially  protecting  the  femora. 

O.  Posterior  coxae  flat,  not  prominent, 
covered  by  the  femora  in  repose, 
p.  552 CLERID^E. 

OO.  Posterior  coxae  oval,  not  promi- 
nent, p.  533 SCAPHIDIID^E. 

OOO.  Posterior  coxae  conical  and 
prominent. 

P.  Anterior  coxae  with  distinct  tro- 
chantins.     p.  552.  ..MALACHilD^t;. 
PP.    Anterior    coxae    without    tro- 
chantins.     p.  553. .  .LYMEXYLID^E. 
KK.  Abdomen  with  six  or  more  ventral  seg- 
ments. 
L.  Anterior  coxae  flat.     p.  529. 

PLATYPSYLLIDJE. 

LL.  Anterior  coxae  either  globular  or  conical. 
M.  Anterior  coxae  globular. 
N.  Prosternum  prolonged  behind,  form- 
ing an   acute  process  moving   in   the 

mesosternum.     p.  544 ELATERID/E. 

NN.   Prosternum  not  prolonged  behind. 

p.  529 LEPTINID^;. 

MM.  Anterior  coxae  conical. 
N.    Posterior  coxae   not  prominent,  flat, 
covered    by    the    femora    in    repose. 

p.  552 CLERID^E. 

NN.  Posterior  coxae  more  or  less  conical 
and  prominent  at  least  internally,  not 
covered  by  the  femora  in  repose. 
O.  Posterior  coxae  widely  separated. 
P.  Eyes  wanting  or   inconspicuous. 

p.  529 
PP.  With  well-developed  eyes. 


COLEOPTERA.  511 

Q.  Elytra  covering  the  abdomen. 

p.    531 SCYDMyENID^E. 

QQ.  Elytra  not  covering  the  entire 
abdomen,     p.  533. 

SCAPHIDIID^E. 

OO.  Posterior  coxae  approximate. 
P.  Antennae  gradually  thickened,  or 
clavate ;    posterior  tarsi   not  wid- 
ened,    p.  529 SILPHID^E. 

PP.  Antennae     setaceous,     filiform, 
serrate,     pectinate,    or     flabellate, 
rarely  with  three  somewhat  larger 
terminal  segments,  in  which  case 
the  tarsi  are  widened. 
Q.  Anterior  coxae  long,  with   dis- 
tinct trochantins. 
R.  Abdomen  with  seven  or  eight 
ventral  segments,    p.  550. 

LAMPYRIDJE. 

RR.  Abdomen    with    only    six 
ventral  segments,     p.  552. 

MALACHIID^E. 

QQ.  Anterior  coxae  without   tro- 
chantins.    p.  553..LYMEXYLID;E. 

GG.  Hind  tarsi  either  only  three-jointed  or  four-jointed, 
but  apparently  three-jointed,  the  third  segment  being 
small  and  concealed  in  a  notch  at  the  end  of  the  sec- 
ond segment.     (See  also  GGG.) 
H.  Wings  fringed  with  long  hairs. 

I.  Abdomen  with  six  or  seven  ventral  segments. 

*.  Tarsi  four-jointed,  the  third  segment  small  and 
concealed  in  a  notch  at  the  end  of  the  second 
segment,  p.  534 CORYLOPHIDJE. 

JJ.  Tarsi  three-jointed. 

K.  Antennae  slender, vertictflate,  with  longhair, 
abdomen  not  prolonged,     p.  533. 

TRICHOPTERYGIDjE. 

KK.  Antennae  short,  not  verticillate,  abdomen 
prolonged,    p.  533 HYDROSCAPHID.*. 

II.  Abdomen   with    only  three  ventral   segments, 
p.  533 

HH.  Wings  not  fringed  with  hairs. 


512  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

I.  Tarsi  with  second  segment  dilated. 

J.  Tarsal  claws  appendiculate  or  toothed  ;  first 
ventral  abdominal  segment  with  distinct  curved 
coxal  lines,  p.  534 COCCINELLID^E. 

JJ.  Tarsal  claws  simple ;  first  ventral  abdominal 
segment  without  coxal  lines,  p.  535. 

ENDOMYCHID^E. 

II.  Tarsi  with  second  segment  not  dilated. 

J.  Elytra  entirely  covering  the  abdomen  ;  ventral 
abdominal  segments  nearly  equal,  p.  542. 

LATHRIDIID;E. 

JJ.  Elytra  truncate  ;  the  first  and  fifth  ventral  ab- 
dominal segments  longer  than  the  others. 
K.  Maxilla  with  galea  distinct;  anterior  coxae 

small,  rounded,     p.   542  MONOTOMID^E. 

KK.  Galea   wanting,   anterior  coxae    subtrans- 

verse.    p.  541 NITIDULID^E. 

GGG.  All  tarsi  four-jointed. 

H.  The  first  four  abdominal  segments  grown  together 
on  the  ventral  side. 

I.  Tibiae  dilated,  armed  with   rows  of  spines,  and 
fitted  for  digging,    p.  543 HETEROCERID^E. 

II.  Tibiae  not  dilated  nor  fitted  for  digging,     p.   537. 

COLYDIID^E. 

HH.  Ventral  segments  of  abdomen   not  grown  to- 
gether. 

I.  Wings  fringed  with  hairs. 

J.  Hind  coxae  contiguous  and  with  plates  cover- 
ing the  femora  entirely  or  in  part.  p.  529. 

SILPHID;E. 

JJ.  Hind  coxae  separate  and  not  covering  the 
femora,  p.  543 CORYLOPHID^E. 

II.  Wings  not  fringed  with  hairs. 

J.  Anterior  coxae  transverse,     p.  541. 

NlTIDULIDjE. 

JJ.  Anterior  coxae  either  globose  or  oval. 
K.  Anterior  coxae  globose. 

L.  Tarsi  slender,    p.  535 ENDOMYCHID/E. 

LL.  Tarsi  more  or   less  dilated  and  spongy 

beneath,    p.  536 EROTYLID^E. 

KK.  Anterior  coxae  oval. 


COLEOPTERA.  513 

L.  Anterior  coxae    separated   by  the  horny 
prosternum. 
M.  Body  depressed,  head  free.    p.  538. 

MYCETOPHAGID^E. 
MM.  Body  cylindrical,    thorax    prolonged 

over  the  head.     p.  554 CIID^E. 

LL.  Anterior  coxae   contiguous,   prosternum 

semimembranous.    p.  543 GEORYSSIDJE. 

BB.  Hind  tarsi  with  only  four  segments,  the  fore  tarsi,  and  almost 
always  the  middle  tarsi  also,  with  five  segments. 
C.  Anterior  coxal  cavities  closed  behind. 
D.  Tarsal  claws  simple. 

E.  Abdomen  with  five  ventral  segments. 

F.  Ventral  abdominal  segments  in  part  grown  together. 
G.  Next  to  the  last  segment  of  tarsi  spongy  beneath, 

p.  584 LAGRI  ID;E.. 

GG.  Penultimate  segment  of  tarsi  not  spongy,     p.  582. 

TENEBRIONID^E 
FF.  Ventral  abdominal  segments  free. 

G.  Anterior  coxal  cavities  confluent,     p.  584. 

OTHNIID^E. 

GG.  Anterior  coxal  cavities  separated  by  the  proster- 
num. 
H.  Elytra  truncate,  tip  of  abdomen  exposed.     (Rhizo- 

phagus.)     p.  541 NITIDULID^E. 

HH.  Elytra!  entire,     p.  554 SPHINDIDJE.. 

EE.  Abdomen  with  six  ventral  segments. 

F.  The  first  two  ventral   abdominal  segments  grown  to- 
gether;  the  last  two  closely  united,    p.  584.^EGIALITID^E.. 
FF.  Ventral  abdominal  segments  free.     p.  529. 

SILPHID/E. 

DD.  Tarsal  claws  pectinate,     p.  584 CISTELID^. 

CC.  Anterior  coxal  cavities  open  behind. 

D.  Head  not  strongly  and  suddenly  constricted  at  base. 
E.  Middle  coxae  not  very  prominent. 
F.  Antennae  received  in  grooves,    p.  584.  ..MoNOMMiD^E. 
FF.  Antennae  free. 

G.  Prothorax  margined  at  the  sides. 
H.  Middle  coxal  cavities  entirely  surrounded  by  the 

sterna,    p.  538 CRYPTOPH AGID.E. 

HH.   Epimera  of  mesothorax  reaching  the  coxae. 


514  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

I.  Metasternum  long ;  epimera  of  metathorax  visi- 
ble,   p.  585 MELANDRYID^E. 

II.  Metasternum  quadrate ;  epimera  of  metathorax 
covered,     p.   537 CUCUJID^E. 

GG.  Prothorax  not  margined  at  the  sides,     p.  585. 

PYTHID^E. 

EE.  Middle  coxae  very  prominent,     p.  585. .  .C£DEMERID;E. 
DD.  Head  strongly  constricted  at  base. 
E.  Head  prolonged  behind  and  gradually  narrowed,     p.  585. 

CEPHALOID^E. 

EE.  Head  suddenly  narrowed  behind. 
F.  Prothorax  with  the  side  pieces  not  separated  from  the 
pronotum  by  a  suture. 

G.  Tarsi  perfect,  with  distinct  claws  ;   eyes  normal. 
H.  Prothorax  at  base  narrower  than  the  elytra. 

I.  Hind  coxae  not  prominent,  or  but  slightly  so. 

J.  Anterior  coxae  globular,  not  prominent,  p.  537. 

CUCUJID^E. 

JJ.  Anterior  coxae  conical,  prominent,     p.  586. 

ANTHICID^E. 

II.  Hind  coxae  large,  prominent. 

J.  Tarsal  claws  simple  ;  head  horizontal,     p.  586. 

PYROCHROID^E. 

JJ.  Claws  cleft  or  toothed  ;  front  vertical,    p.   586. 

MELOID^E. 

HH.  Prothorax,  at  base,  as  wide  as  the  elytra,    p.  589. 

RHIPIPHORID/E. 
GG.  Tarsi  without  claws  ;  eyes  pedunculated.     p.  589. 

STYLOPID/E. 

FF.  Lateral  suture  of   prothorax  distinct ;   base   of  pro- 
thorax  as  wide  as  the  elytra. 
G.  Antennae  filiform. 

H.  Hind  coxae  plate-like,     p.  586 MORDELLID^;. 

HH.  Hind  coxae,  not  plate-like,     p.  585. 

MELANDRYID^E. 
GG.  Antennae  flabellate  in  the  male,  subserrate  in  the 

female,    p.  589 RHIPIPHORID^E. 

AA.  Head  more  or  less  prolonged  into  a  beak  ;  palpi  short  and 
rigid;  gular  sutures  confluent  on  the  median  line  (Fig.  602,  gs); 
prosternal  sutures  wanting;  the  epimera  of  the  prothorax  meeting 
on  the  middle  line  behind  the  prosternum.  (Fig.  602,  em.) 

RHYNCHOPHORA. 


COLEOPTERA.  515 

B.  Elytra  with  no  fold  or  with  a  very  feeble  one  on  the  lower  sur- 
face near  the  outer  edge ;  pygidium  of  male  and  female  alike. 

C.  Labrum  distinct,     p.  590 RHINOMACERID^E. 

CC.  Labrum  wanting. 
D.  Mandibles  flat,  toothed  on  inner  and  outer  sides,     p.  591. 

RHYNCHITIDVE. 

DD.  Mandibles  stout,  pincer-shaped.     p.  591 . . .  ATTELABID^E. 
BB.   Elytra  with  a  very  strong  fold  on  the  lower  surface  near  the 
outer  margin. 

C.  The   last    dorsal   segment  (pygidium)   of  the   male   divided 
transversely,  so  that  this  sex  appears  to  have  one  more  dorsal 
segment  than  the  female. 
D.  Antennae  with  a  ringed  or  solid  club. 

E.  Tarsi  narrow,  setose  or  spinose  beneath,     p.  591. 

BYRSOPID^E. 
EE.  Tarsi  usually  dilated,  brush-like  beneath. 

F.  Mandibles  with  a  deciduous  piece,  which  is  lost  soon 
after  emergence  from  the  pupa  state,  and  leaves  a  scar. 

p.  592 OTIORHYNCHID^:. 

FF.  Mandibles  without  accessory  piece  in  the  pupa  state, 
and  therefore  without  a  scar  in  the  adult  state,    p.  593. 

CURCULIONID^. 

DD.  Antennae  with  ten  or  eleven  distinct  segments,     p.  594. 

BRENTHIDjE. 

CC.  Pygidium  of  both  sexes  undivided. 

D.  Pygidium  horizontal ;  tibiae  usually  serrate,     p.  596. 

SCOLYTIDyE. 

DD.   Pygidium  vertical  or  declivous;  tibiae  not  serrate. 

E.  Antennae  geniculate ;  labrum  wanting;  last  spiracle  cov- 
ered by  ventral  segments,  p.  595 CALANDRIDJE. 

EE.  Antennas  straight;  labrum  distinct;  last  spiracle  un- 
covered, p.  598 ANTHRIBIDJE. 


Suborder  COLEOPTERA  GENUINA. 
The  Typical  Coleoptera. 

This  suborder  includes  all  the  families  of  Coleoptera 
except  the  snout-beetles,  which  are  classed  together  as  a 
second  suborder,  the  Rhynchophora. 


516  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

In  the  Typical  Coleoptera  the  mouth-parts  are  of  the 
ordinary  type  ;  the  head  is  not  prolonged  into  a  snout ;  the 
gula  is  present,  there  being  two  gular  sutures,  at  least, 
before  and  behind  (Fig.  601,  b) ;  and  the  epimera  of  the 
prothorax  are  not  prolonged  so  as  to  meet  on  the  middle 
line  of  the  body  behind  the  prosternum  (Fig.  612). 

Family  ClClNDELlD^E  (Cic-in-del'i-dae). 
The  Tiger-beetles. 

The  graceful  forms  and  beautiful  colors  of  the  greater 
number  of  the  tiger-beetles  have  made  this  family  one  of 
the  favorites  of  students  of  Coleoptera.  To  this  family 
belong  the  most  agile  of  all  beetles ;  and  they  are  not 
merely  swift  of  foot,  but  are  also  able  to  fly  well.  They 
are  found  on  bright,  hot  days  in  dusty  roads,  in  beaten 
paths,  and  on  the  shores  of  streams.  They  remain  abso- 
lutely still  until  we  can  see  them  well  but  are  still  out  of 
reach  ;  then  like  a  flash  they  fly  up  and  away,  alighting 
several  rods  ahead  of  us.  Before  alighting  they  always  turn 
so  that  they  face  us,  and  can  thus  watch  our  movements. 

Their  popular  name  is  suggestive  of  their  predaceous 
habits,  and  of  the  spots  with  which  many  are  marked. 
They  are  usually  a  metallic  green  or  bronze,  banded  or 
spotted  with  yellow.  Some  are  black ;  and  some  that  live 
on  white  sand  are  grayish  white,  being  exactly  like  the  sand 
in  color. 

A  useful  character  for  distinguishing  the  members  of 
this  family  is  the  fact  that  the  terminal  hook 
of  the  maxilla  (the  digitus]  is  united  to.  this 
organ  by  a  movable  joint  (Fig.  618,  ti). 

The   sexes  of  the  tiger-beetles   can    be    dis- 
tinguished, except  in  Amblychila,  by  the  sixth 
abdominal  segment  of  the  males  being  notched 
so  as  to  expose  a  small  seventh  segment ;  while 
in    the    females    only   six    segments    are   visible.      In    the 


COLEOPTERA.  5 1? 

males  also  the  first  three  segments  of  the  anterior  tarsi  are 
usually  dilated  and  densely  clothed  with  hair  beneath. 

It  has  been  said  that  these  beetles  make  burrows  in 
which  to  retire  from  the  rain  and  cold.  We  have  seen  them 
in  September  digging  burrows  in  a  hillside;  these  descended 
slightly  and  were  about  five  inches  deep.  The  beetles  kicked 
the  dirt  out  behind  them  as  they  dug,  so  that  it  lay  in  a 
heap  at  the  opening  of  the  hole.  But  we  were  unable  to 
discover  whether  these  burrows  were  made  as  dwellings,  or, 
what  is  more  likely,  places  in  which  to  deposit  eggs.  No 
observation  as  to  the  egg-laying  habits  of  these  insects  has 
come  to  our  notice. 

The  tiger-beetle  larvae  (Fig.  619)  are  as  ugly  and  ungrace- 
ful as  the  adults  are  beautiful.  The  two  have  only  one  habit 
in  common — their  eagerness  for  prey.  The 
larvae  live  in  vertical  burrows  in  sandy  places 
or  in  beaten  paths.  These  burrows  occur  also 
in  ploughed  fields  that  have  become  dry  and 
hard.  They  often  extend  a  foot  or  more  in 
depth.  The  larva  takes  a  position  of  watch- 
fulness at  the  mouth  of  its  burrow.  Its  dirt- 
colored  head  is  bent  at  right  angles  to  its  FlG  6ig_Larva 
lighter-colored  body  and  makes  a  neat  plug  to  of  Cicindela- 
the  opening  of  the  hole.  Its  rapacious  jaws  extend  upward, 
wide  open,  ready  to  seize  the  first  unwary  insect  that  walks 
over  this  living  trap.  On  the  fifth  segment  of  the  abdomen 
there  is  a  hump,  and  on  this  hump  are  two  hooks  curved 
forward.  This  is  an  arrangement  by  which  the  little  rascal 
can  hold  back  and  keep  from  being  jerked  out  of  its  hole 
when  it  gets  some  large  insect  by  the  leg,  and  by  which  it 
can  drag  its  struggling  prey  down  into  its  lair,  where  it  may 
eat  it  at  leisure.  It  is  interesting  to  thrust  a  straw  down 
into  one  of  these  burrows,  and  then  dig  it  out  with  a  trowel. 
The  chances  are  that  you  will  find  the  indignant  inhabitant 
at  the  remote  end  of  the  burrow,  chewing  savagely  at  the 
end  of  the  intruding  straw. 


518  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Nearly  all  of  our  tiger-beetles  belong  to  the  genus  Cicin- 
dela  (Cic-in-de'la),  of  which  there  are  about  sixty  North 
American  species;  one  of  these  is 
represented  in  Figure  620.  We 
have  also  two  species  of  TetracJia 
(Tet'ra-cha)  ;  see  Figure  621.  In 
the  Middle  West  is  found  Ambly. 
chila  cylindriformis  (Am-bly-chi'la 
cy-lin-dri-for'mis),  the  giant  of  the 

FIG.  620.  "  FIG.  621.    '      family,  measuring  one  and  three 

eighths  inches  in  length  ;  and  on 

the  Pacific  coast  occur  nine  species  of  Omus  (O'mus).  In 
this  genus  the  body  is  smaller  and  its  thorax  larger  than 
in  Cicindela.  These  beetles  search  for  their  prey  only  at 
night. 

Family  CARABID.E  (Ca-rab'i-dae). 

The  Ground-beetles. 

The  ground-beetles  are  so  called  because  they  are  very 
common  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  lurking  under  stones 
or  rubbish,  or  running  through  the  grass.  Our  more  com- 
mon species  are  easily  recognized  by  their  shining-black 
color  and  long  legs.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  however,  the 
darkling  beetles  (Family  Tenebrioriidae),  which  are  also 
black  and  have  long  legs,  abound  under  stones  and  frag- 
ments of  wood  on  the  ground.  But  the  two  families  can  be 
easily  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  in  the  ground-beetles 
all  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed,  while  in  the  darkling  beetles  the 
hind  tarsi  are  only  four-jointed ;  and  the  darkling  beetles  do 
not  run  rapidly  as  do  the  ground-beetles. 

With  the  ground-beetles  the  antennae  are  thread-like, 
tapering  gradually  towards  the  tip,  and  each  segment  is  of 
nearly  uniform  thickness  throughout  its  length  ;  the  legs  are 
fitted  for  running,  and  the  antennae  are  inserted  on  the  front 
above  the  base  of  the  mandibles.  Although  most  of  the 
species  are  black,  there  are  those  that  are  blue,  green,  or 
brown,  and  a  few  that  are  spotted.  The  wing-covers  are 


CO  LEO  P  TERA .  $1$ 

almost    always    ornamented    with    longitudinal    ridges   and 
rows  of  punctures. 

Most  members  of  this  family  are  predaceous,  feeding 
upon  other  insects,  which  they  spring  upon  or  capture  by 
chase.  A  few  species  use  vegetable  food  ;  but  their  depre- 
dations are  rarely  of  economic  importance.  As  there  are 
more  than  eleven  hundred  described  North  American 
species,  and  as  many  of  the  species  are  very  comrnon,  this 
family  may  be  considered  the  most  important  family  of 
predaceous  insects. 

The  larvae  of  ground-beetles  are  generally  long,  with  the 
body  of  nearly  equal  breadth  throughout  (Fig.  622.)  They 
have  sharp  projecting  mandibles  ;  and  the 
caudal  end  of  the  body  is  usually  fur- 
nished with  a  pair  of  conical  bristly  ap-  FlG-  6z2- 
pendages.  They  live  in  the  same  obscure  situations  as  the 
adult  insects,  but  are  more  shy,  and  are  consequently  less 
frequently  seen.  Like  the  adults,  they  are  predaceous. 

Among  the  more  common  ground-beetles  are  the  fol- 
lowing : — 

The  Searcher,  Calosoma  scrutator  (Cal-o-so'ma  scru-ta'- 
tor). — This  is  one  of  the  larger  and  more  beautiful  of  our 
ground-beetles  ;  it  has  green  or 
violet  wing-covers  margined 
with  reddish,  and  the  rest  of  the 
body  is  marked  with  violet-blue, 
gold,  green,  and  copper  (Fig. 
623).  This  beetle  and  the  follow- 
ing have  been  known  to  climb 
trees  in  search  of  caterpillars. 

The  Fiery  Hunter,  Calosoma 
calidum  (C.  cal'i-dum),  is  some- 
what smaller  than  the  preced- 
ing, and  is  easily  recognized  by 
FIG.  623.  the  rows  of  reddish  or  copper- 

colored  pits  on  the  wing-covers  (Fig.  624). 


52O  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

There  are  certain  other  large,  swiftly  running  ground- 
beetles  which  resemble  somewhat  those  just  described. 
These  belong  to  the  genus  Cychrus  (Cy'chrus),  and  may 
be  recognized  by  the  long,  narrow  head,  the  wider  or 
more  nearly  circular  wing-covers,  and 
by  the  fact  that  the  wing-covers  have 
a  very  broad,  reflected  margin,  which 
covers  a  large  part  of  the  sides  of  the 
thorax. 

The     bombardier-beetles,    Brachinus 
(Bra-chi'nus). — There  are   many   species 
of  beetles  that  have  at  the  hind  end  of 
FIG.  624.  the  body  little  sacs  in  which  is  secreted  a 

bad-smelling  fluid,  which  is  used  as  a  means  of  defence. 
These  beetles  spurt  this  fluid  out  on  to  their  enemies  when 
attacked.  But  in  the  case  of  the  bombardier-beetles  this 
fluid  changes  to  a  gas,  which  looks  like  smoke  as  soon  as 
it  comes  in  contact  with  the  air,  and  is  ejected  with  a  sound 
like  that  of  a  tiny  pop-gun.  When  some  larger  insect  tries 
to  capture  one  of  these  insect-soldiers,  and  gets  very  near  it, 
the  latter  fires  its  little  gun  into  the  face  of  its  enemy.  The 
noise  astonishes  the  pursuer,  and  the  smoke  blinds  him. 
By  the  time  he  has  recovered  from  his  amazement,  the  little 
bombardier  is  at  a  safe  distance.  These  beetles  have  quite 
a  store  of  ammunition  ;  for  we  have  often  had  one  pop  at 
us  four  or  five  times  in  succession,  while  we  were  taking  it 
prisoner.  The  bombardier-beetles  belong  to  the  genus 
Brac/iinus,  of  which  we  have  in  this  country  about  twenty- 
five  species.  They  are  very  similar  in  ^appearance  ;  the 
head,  prothorax,  and  legs  are  reddish  yellow, 
and  the  wing-covers  are  dark  blue,  blackish,  or 
greenish  blue  (Fig.  625). 

There  is   a    common   beetle  that   resembles 
the  bombardier-beetles  quite  closely  in  size  and 
color,  but  which  may  be  distinguished   by  the  "    FIG.  625. 
comb-like    form  of   the   tarsal  claws ;  this  is   Lebia  grandis 


COLEOPTERA. 


521 


(Le'bi-a  gran'dis)  (Fig.  626).  It  has  been  reported  more 
often  than  any  other  insect  as  destroying  the  Colorado 
Potato-beetle. 

Galerita  janus  (Gal-e-ri'ta  ja'nus)  is  still  another  species 
that  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  bom- 
bardier-beetles. But  it  is  much  larger, 
measuring  two  thirds  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  has  only  the  prothorax  and  legs  red- 
dish yellow,  the  head  being  black;  the 
prothorax  is  only  about  half  as  wide  as 
the  wing-covers. 

What  is  perhaps  the  most  common 
type  of  ground-beetle  is  illustrated  by 
Harpalus  ^aliginosus  (Har'pa-lus  ca-lig-i- 
no'sus),  which  is  represented  natural  size 
by  Figure  627.  It  is  of  a  pitchy  black 
color,  and  is  one  of  the  most  common  FIG.  626. 

natural    size     and    en- 

of  our  larger  species.     There  are   nearly     larged. 
fifty    other   species  of  this  genus   in    this  country.     Most 
of  them  are  smaller  than  this  one,  are  flattened,  and  have 
^v  ^^^  y,  the  prothorax  nearly  square. 
^J&/  The  beetles   of  the  genus  Dicalus  (Di-cae'- 

JSKA        lus)  are  quite  common  ;  and  some  of  the  larger 
/J     jV  sPecies   resemble    Harpalus    caliginosus    quite 
^H|flk       closely.    They  can  be  distinguished  by  a  prom- 
j .  ^jgjp  J       jnent   keel-shaped   ridge    which   extends  back 
,/  \     upon  each  wing-cover  from  near  the  corner  of 

FIG.  627.        the  prothorax. 

The  most  common  of  all  ground-beetles,  in  the  North- 
eastern States  at  least,  is  Pterosticus  lucublandus 
(Pte-ros'ti-cus  lu-cu-blan'dus).  In  this  species  (Fig. 
628)  the  narrow,  flat  margin  on  each  side  of 
the  prothorax  is  widened  near  the  hinder  angle 
of  this  segment. 

FIG.  6a8. 

The  family  AMPHIZOID,E  (Am-phi-zo'i-dae)  is  represent- 


522  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

ed  in  our  fauna  by  two  species  of  Amphizoa  (Am-phi-zo'a), 
which  occur  in  Northern  California,  Utah,  and  Vancouver, 
clinging  to  logs  or  stones  under  the  surface  of  streams. 
In  these  beetles  the  metasternum  is  truncate  behind,  not 
reaching  the  abdomen,  and  has  a  very  short  antecoxal 
piece. 

^  Family  HALIPLID^E  (Ha-lip'li-dae). 
The  Haliplids  (Hal' i-f  lids). 

This  family  includes  a  few  species  of  small  aquatic  beetles, 
which  are  oval,  more  or  less  pointed  at  each  end,  and  very 
convex.  The  wing-covers  have  rows  of  punctures,  and  the 
hind  coxae  are  greatly  expanded  so  as  to  conceal  the 
basal  half  of  the  hind  femora  and  from  three  to  six  of  the 
abdominal  segments. 

These  beetles  are  not  uncommon  in  ponds  and  streams, 
but  they  swim  poorly.  Only  three  genera  occur  in  this 
country.  In  Brychius  (Brych'i-us),  which  is  represented  by 
one  species  from  California,  the  prothorax  is  quadrate ;  in 
the  other  genera  it  is  narrowed  in  front.  In  Haliplus  (Hal'- 
i-plus)  the  last  segment  of  the  palpi  is  small  and  awl-shaped; 
in  Cnemidotus  (Cnem-i-do'tus)  it  is  longer  than  the  third  seg- 
ment, and  conical. 

The  larvae  are  aquatic,  occurring  near  the  shores  of 
ponds  and  streams  and  in  other  damp  places.  The  body  is 
rather  slender ;  each  segment  except  the  head  is 
furnished  on  the  back  with  fleshy  lobes  with  spiny 
tips,  which  vary  greatly  in  size  in  different  species ; 
and  the  last  segment  bears  a  long  tapering  appen- 
dage. Figure  629  represents  a  larva  of  this  family, 
which  we  found  in  large  numbers  in  a  pond  swarm- 
ing with  Cnemidotns ;  it  probably  belongs  to  this 
genus.  The  larvae  of  several  species  of  Haliplus 
FIG.  629.  are  figurecj  by  Schiotde,  but  in  each  of  these  the 
caudal  appendage  is  forked. 


.    -     COLEOPTERA.  $2$ 

i~    Family  DYTlSCiDyE  (Dy-tis'ci-dae). 
The  Predaceous  Diving-beetles 

If  one  will  approach  quietly  a  pool  of  standing  water, 
there  may  be  seen  oval,  flattened  beetles  hanging  head 
downward,  with  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  at  the  surface  of 
the  water.  Such  beetles  belong  to  this  family. 

The  predaceous  diving -beetles  are  usually  brownish 
black  and  shining,  but  are  often  marked  indefinitely  with 
dull  yellow.  They  can  be  distinguished  from  the  water 
scavenger-beetles,  which  they  resemble  in  general  appear- 
ance, by  the  thread-like  form  of  the  antennae.  The  hind 
legs  are  the  longest,  and  are  fitted  for  swimming,  being  flat- 
tened, and  fringed  with  hair.  The  middle  and  the  hind  pairs 
of  legs  are  widely  separated.  This  is  due  to  the  very  large 
hind  coxae  which  cover  the  greater  part  of  the  lower  surface 
of  the  thorax.  In  the  males  of  certain 
genera  the  first  three  segments  of  the  fore 
tarsi  are  dilated  and  form  a  circular  disk, 
upon  the  under  side  of  which  are  little 
cup -like  suckers  (Fig.  630).  In  a  few 
cases  the  middle  tarsi  are  dilated  also. 
The  females  of  some  species  exhibit  an 
interesting  dimorphism  in  that  some  of  the  individuals  have 
the  elytra  furnished  with  a  number  of  deep  furrows  (Fig. 
631),  while  others  of  the  same  species  have  them 
smooth. 

The  diving- beetles  abound  in  our  streams 
and  ponds,  but  they  are  more  often  found  in 
standing  water  than  in  streams.  When  at  rest 
they  float  in  an  inclined  position,  head  down- 
FIG.  63i.  ward,  with  the  tip  of  the  hind  end  of  the  body 
projecting  from  the  water.  The  spiracles  open  on  the 
dorsal  side  of  the  abdomen  beneath  the  elytra.  By  lifting 
the  elytra  slightly  a  reservoir  is  formed  for  air,  which  the 
beetle  can  breathe  as  it  swims  through  the  water.  When 


524  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS, 

the  air  becomes  impure  the  beetle  rises  to  the  surface, 
forces  it  out,  and  takes  a  fresh  supply. 

These  beetles  are  very  voracious.  They  destroy  not 
only  other  insects,  but  some  of  them  will  attack  larger  ani- 
mals, as  small  fish.  When  kept  in  aquaria  they  can  be  fed 
upon  any  kind  of  meat,  raw  or  cooked.  They  fly  from  pond 
to  pond,  and  are  often  attracted  to  lights  at  night.  Many 
of  the  species  make  sounds,  both  under  the  water  and  in 
the  air.  In  some  cases  this  is  done  by  rubbing  the  abdom- 
inal segments  upon  the  elytra;  in  others,  by  rubbing  the 
hind  legs  upon  a  rough  spot  on  the  lower  side  of  the 
abdomen. 

The  females  deposit  their  eggs  at  random  in  the  water. 
The  larvae  are  known  as  water-tigers,  because  of  their  blood- 
thirstiness.  They  are  elongated,  spindle-form  grubs  (Fig. 
632).  The  head  is  large,  oval  or  rounded,  and  flattened  ; 


FIG.  632. 

the  mandibles  are  large,  sickle-shaped,  and  hollow,  with  a 
slit-like  opening  near  the  tip ;  they  are  admirably  fitted  for 
holding  the  prey,  and  at  the  same  time  sucking  the  juices 
from  its  body,  the  hollow  of  the  mandibles  communicating 
with  the  oesophagus.  The  true  mouth  is  quite  small.  The 
thorax  is  furnished  with  six  well-developed  legs.  With 
many  of  these  larvae  the  body  ends  in  a  pair  of  breathing- 
tubes,  which  they  protrude  into  the  air  at  intervals. 

When  a  larva  is  fully  grown  it  leaves  the  water,  burrows 
into  the  ground,  and  makes  a  round  cell,  within  which  it 
undergoes  its  transformations.  The  pupa  state  lasts  about 
three  weeks  in  summer ;  but  the  larvae  that  transform  in 
autumn  remain  in  the  pupa  state  all  winter. 

This  is  the  largest  of  the  families  of  water -beetles; 
nearly  three  hundred  North  American  species  are  known. 


COLEOPTERA.  $2$ 

The  best  way  to  obtain  specimens  is  to  sweep  the  vege- 
tation growing  on  the  bottom  of  a  quiet  pool  with  a  dip- 
net. 

The  larger  of  our  common  species  belong  to  Cybister 
(Cy-bis'ter),  Dytiscus  (Dy-tis'cus),  and  al- 
lied genera.  In  Cybister  the  little  cups 
on  the  under  side  of  the  tarsal  disks  of 
the  male  are  similar,  and  arranged  in  four 
rows.  In  Dytiscus  and  its  allies  the  cups 
of  the  tarsal  disks  vary  in  size.  Figure 
633  represents  a  common  species  of  Dy- 
tiscus'*  FIG.  633. 

The  most  common  of  the  diving-beetles  that  are  of 
medium  size  belong  to  the  genus  Acilins  (A-cil'i-us).  In 
this  genus  the  elytra  are  densely  punctured  with  very  fine 
punctures,  and  the  females  usually  have  four  furrows  in 
each  wing-cover  (Fig.  631)., 

There  are  also  common  diving-beetles  that  are  of  about 
the  same  size  as  the  preceding,  but  which  have  the  wing- 
covers  marked  with  numerous  very  fine  transverse  striae; 
these  belong  to  the  genus  Colymbetes  (Col-ym-be'tes). 

Of  the  smaller  diving-beetles,  measuring  less  than  one 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  many  species  can  be  found  in 
almost  any  pond.  These  represent  many  genera. 

Family  GYRINID^  (Gy-rin'i-dae). 
The  Whirligig-beetles. 

As  familiar  to  the  country  rover  as  the  gurgling  of  the 
brook,  or  the  flecks  of  foam  on  its  "  golden-braided  centre," 
or  the  trailing  ferns  and  the  rustling  rushes  on  its  banks, 
are  these  whirligigs  on  its  pools.  Around  and  around  each 
other  they  dart,  tracing  graceful  curves  on  the  water,  which 
vanish  almost  as  soon  as  made.  They  are  social  fellows, 
and  are  almost  always  found  in  large  numbers,  either  swim- 
ming or  resting  motionless  near  together.  They  rarely  dive, 
except  when  pursued ;  but  are  so  agile  that  it  is  extremely 


526  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

difficult  to  catch  them  without  a  net.  Many  of  them  when 
caught  exhale  a  milky  fluid  having  a  very  disagreeable  odor. 
They  feed  upon  small  flies,  beetles,  and  other  insects  that 
fall  into  the  water,  and  are  furnished  with  well-developed 
wings,  with  which  they  fly  from  one  body  of  water  to  an- 
other. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  easily-recognized  families  of  the 
whole  order  Coleoptera.  The  members  of  it  are  oval  or 
elliptical  in  form  (Fig.  634),  more  or  less  flattened, 
and  usually  of  a  very  brilliant,  bluish-black  color 
above,  with  a  bronze  metallic  lustre.  The  fore 
legs  are  very  long  and  rather  slender ;  the  middle 
FIG.  634.  and  hind  legs  are  short,  broad,  and  very  much  flat- 
tened. These  insects  are  remarkable  for  having  the  eyes 
completely  divided  by  the  margin  of  the  head,  so  that  they 
appear  to  have  four  eyes — a  pair  upon  the  upper  surface 
of  the  head  with  which  to  look  into  the  air,  and  a  pair  upon 
the  under  side  for  looking  into  the  water.  The  antennae 
are  very  short  and  peculiar  in  form.  The  third  segment  is 
enlarged,  so  as  to  resemble  an  ear-like  appendage,  and  the 
following  ones  form  a  short,  spindle-shaped  mass.  They 
are  inserted  in  little  cavities  in  front  of  the  eyes. 

The  eggs  of  these  insects  are  small,  of  cylindrical  form, 
and  are  placed  end  to  end  in  parallel  rows  upon  the 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants.  The  larvae  (Fig.  635)  are 
long,  narrow,  and  much  flattened.  Each  abdominal 
segment  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  tracheal  gills, 
and  there  is  an  additional  pair  at  the  caudal  end  of 
the  body.  The  elongated  form  of  the  body  and  the 
conspicuous  tracheal  gills  cause  these  larvae  to  re- 
semble small  centipedes.  When  a  larva  is  full 
grown  it  leaves  the  water  and  spins  a  gray,  paper- 
like  cocoon  attached  to  some  object  near  the  water. 
The  pupa  state  of  the  species  in  which  it  has  been 
observed  lasts  about  a  month. 

The  family  is  a  small  one.     At  present  only  thirty-six 


COLEOPTERA.  $27 

North  American  species  are  known.  These  represent  three 
genera.  The  genus  Gyretus  (Gyr'e-tus)  is  distinguished  by 
having  the  last  ventral  segment  of  the  abdomen  elongated 
and  conical.  It  is  represented  by  a  single  species,  G.  sinuatus 
(G.  sin-u-a'tus).  In  the  other  two  genera  the  last  ventral 
segment  is  flattened  and  rounded  at  the  tip.  In  Dineutus 
(Di-neu'tus)  the  scutellum  is  wanting;  there  are  eight  spe- 
cies of  this  genus.  In  Gyrinus  (Gy-ri'nus)  the  scutellum  is 
visible  ;  of  this  genus  we  have  twenty-seven  species. 

-/_  Family  HYDROPHILID^E  (Hyd-ro-phiri-dae). 
The  Water-scavenger  Beetles. 

The  water-scavenger  beetles  are  common  in  quiet  pools, 
where  they  may  be  found  swimming  through  the  water,  or 
crawling  among  the  plants  growing  on  the  bottom.  They 
can  be  easily  taken  by  sweeping  such  plants  with  a  dip-net. 

They  are  elongated,  elliptical,  black  beetles,  resembling 
the  predaceous  diving  beetles  in  appearance ;  but  they  are 
usually  more  convex,  and  differ  also  in  having  club-shaped 
antennae  and  very  long  palpi.  As  the  antennas  are  usually 
concealed  beneath  the  head,  it  often  happens  that  the  inex- 
perienced student  mistakes  the  long  palpi  for  antennae. 

These  beetles  are  supposed  to  live  chiefly  upon  decaying 
vegetation  in  the  water;  but  a  number  of  species  have  been 
known  to  catch  and  eat  living  insects.  They  breathe  by  car- 
rying a  film  of  air  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body.  This 
film  gives  them  a  silvery  appearance  when  seen  from  below. 
They  obtain  the  air  by  bringing  the  head  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  and  projecting  the 
antennae,  which  they  again  fold  back  with  a 
bubble  of  air  when  they  descend.  The  female 
makes  a  case  for  her  eggs  out  of  a  hardened 
silk-like  secretion.  Some  species  deposit  as 
many  as  a  hundred  eggs  in  one  of  these  water- 
proof packages  (Fig.  636).  The  egg-cases  in 
some  instances  are  fastened  beneath  the  leaves  of  aquatic 


528  THE  STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 

plants ;  in  others  they  are  provided  with  floats  and  let  loose 
in  the  water ;  and  in  still  other  species  the  cases  are  carried 
by  the  mother  underneath  her  body  and  steadied  with  her 
hind  legs.  Frequently  some  of  the  young  larvae  devour 
their  companions  ;  in  this  way  the  size  of  the  family  is  de- 
creased before  it  escapes  from  the  egg-case.  Later  they 
live  upon  insects  that  fall  into  the  water  and  upon  snails. 

These  larvae  resemble  somewhat  those  of  the  Dytiscidae; 
but  the  body  is  much  more  plump,  and  the  mandibles  are  of 
moderate  size.  A  very  interesting  observation  on  the  mode 
of  feeding  of  one  of  these  larvae  has  been  published.  It  cap- 
tured a  fly,  and  swam  with  it  rapidly  through  the  water  to  a 
leaf  near  the  surface.  It  then  rested  on  this  leaf,  and,  rais- 
ing its  head  out  of  the  water,  crushed  the  fly  to  pulp  with  its 
jaws,  letting  the  blood  run  into  its  open  mouth. 

The  Hydrophilidse  are  represented  in  North  America  by 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  species.  Our  three  largest  be- 
long to  the  genus  Hydrophilus  (Hy-droph'i-lus).  In  this 
genus  the  metasternum  is  prolonged  backward  into  a  spine 
between  the  hind  legs,  and  the  ster- 
num of  the  prothorax  bears  a  deep 
furrow.  Our  most  common  species  is 
Hydrophilus  triangularis  (H.  tri-an-gu- 
la'ris)  (Fig.  637). 

The  beetles  of  the  genus  Tropister- 
nus  '(Trop-i-ster'nus)  agree  with  Hy- 
dropliilus  in  the  form  of  the  proster- 
num  and  metasternum,  but  differ  in 
size,  our  species  measuring  less  than 
one-half  inch  in  length.  The  most 
common  species  in  the  East  is  Tropi- 
sternus  glaber  (T.  gla'ber),  and,  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  T.  calif  or  nicus. 

Next  in  size  to  Hydrophilus  are  several  species  of  Hy- 
drocharis  (Hy-droch'a-ris).  In  this  genus  the  metasternum 
is  prolonged  somewhat,  but  does  not  form  a  long,  sharp 


COLEOPTERA.  S29 

spine  as  in  Hydrophilus  and  Tropisternus,  and  the  sternum 
of  the  prothorax  bears  a  keel-shaped  projection.  Our  most 
common  species  is  Hydrocharis  obtusatus  (H.  ob-tu-sa'tus) ; 
this  measures  about  five  eighths  of  an  inch  in  length. 

Some  of  the  smaller  species  of  this  family  are  not  aquatic, 
but  live  in  moist  earth  and  in  the  dung  of  cattle,  where,  it 
is  said,  they  feed  on  dipterous  larvae. 

Family  PLATYPSYLLID^:  (Plat-y-psyl'i-dae). 
Tlie  Beaver-parasite. 

Only  a  single  representative  of  this  family  is  known  ; 
this  is  Platypsylla  castoris  (Plat-y-psyl'la  cas'to-ris),  which 
lives  parasitically  on  the  beaver.  This  beetle  is  about  one 
tenth  of  an  inch  in  length  ;  the  body  is  ovate,  elongate,  and 
much  flattened  ;  the  wing-covers  are  short,  about  as  long  as 
the  prothorax,  and  leave  five  abdominal  segments  exposed ; 
the  eyes  and  wings  are  wanting. 

Specimens  of  this  remarkable  insect  are  most  easily 
obtained  by  beating  over  a  sheet  of  paper  the  dried  skins  of 
beavers,  which  can  be  found  at  fur-stores. 

The  family  LEPTINID^:  (Lep-tin'i-dae)  is  represented  by 
only  two  species  in  North  America.  One  of  these  is  from 
the  Hudson  Bay  region  ;  the  other,  Leptinus  testaceus  (Lep- 
ti'nus  tes-ta'ce-us)  lives  with  various  small  rodents  and  insec- 
tivora,  either  on  their  bodies  or  in  the  material  of  their  nests. 
It  can  be  distinguished  by  the  characters  given  in  the  table 
of  families. 

1-Family  SlLPHlD^:  (Sil'phi-dae). 
The  Carrion-beetles. 

The  carrion-beetles  are  mostly  of  medium  or  large  size, 
many  species  attaining  the  length  of  one  and  one  half  inches, 
while  the  smaller  species  of  the  more  typical  genera  are 
nearly  half  an  inch  in  length ;  some  members  of  the  family, 
however,  are  minute.  The  segments  near  the  tip  of  the  an- 


530 


THE  STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


tennae  are  usually  enlarged  so  as  to  form  a  compact  club, 
which  is  neither  comb-like  nor  composed  of  thin  movable 
plates ;  sometimes  the  antennae  are  nearly  filiform. 

These  insects  usually  feed  upon  decaying  animal  matter; 
some,  however,  feed  upon  fungi,  and  a  few  species  have 
been  known  to  be  predaceous  when  pressed  by  hunger, 
destroying  living  snails  and  insects — even  members  of  their 
own  species. 

It  is  easy  to  obtain  specimens  of  these  insects  by  placing 
pieces  of  meat  or  small  dead  animals  in  the  fields  and  exam- 
ining them  daily.  There  are  several  other  families  of 
beetles  the  members  of  which  can  be  attracted  in  this  way. 
The  larvae  also  live  upon  decaying  flesh  and  are  found  in 
the  same  situations  as  the  adults. 

We  have  in  this  country  more  than  one  hundred  species 
of  this  family.  Our  larger  and  more  familiar  species  repre- 
sent two  genera,  Necrophorus  (Nec-roph'o-rus)  and  SilpJia 
(Sil'pha). 

The  Burying-beetles,  Necrophorus. — To  this  genus  belong 
the  largest  members  of  the  family.  The  body  is  very  stout, 
almost  cylindrical  (Fig.  638).  Our  com- 
mon species  have  a  reddish  spot  on 
each  end  of  each  wing-cover ;  these 
spots  are  often  so  large  that  they  ap- 
pear as  two  transverse  bands.  In  some 
species  the  prothorax  and  the  head  are 
also  marked  with  red. 

These  insects  are  called  burying- 
beetles  because  they  bury  carrion. 
When  a  pair  of  these  beetles  discover  a 
dead  bird,  mouse,  or  other  small  ani- 
mal, they  dig  beneath  it,  removing  the 
earth  so  as  to  allow  the  carrion  to  settle 
into  the  ground.  This  they  will  continue  until  the  object 
is  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Then  they  cover  it 
with  earth,  and  finally  the  female  digs  down  to  it  and  lays 


nucn  nat 

I 


COLEOPTERA.  53 l 

her  eggs  upon  it.  The  larvae  that  hatch  from  these  eggs 
feed  upon  the  food  thus  provided  for  them.  There  are 
many  accounts  of  exhibitions  of  remarkable  strength  and 
sagacity  by  burying-beetles.  A  pair  of  these  insects  have 
been  known  to  roll  a  large  dead  rat  several  feet  in  order  to 
get  it  upon  a  suitable  spot  for  burying. 

The  members  of  the  genus  Silpha  are  very  much  flat- 
tened (Fig.  639).  The  prothorax  is  round  in 
outline,  with  very  thin  edges  which  overlap  the 
wing-covers  somewhat.  The  body  is  not  nearly 
as  stout  as  that  of  a  burying-beetle,  being  fitted 
for  creeping  under  dead  animals  instead  of  for 
performing  deeds  requiring  great  strength.  FlG-  639- 

In  some  of  the  minute  members  of  the  family  the  body 
is  nearly  hemispherical. 

^The  family  SCYDM^ENID^:  (Scyd-maen'i-dae)  includes 
very  small  insects  found  under  bark  or  stones,  in  ants'  nests, 
or  near  water.  They  are  small,  shining,  usually  ovate,  but 
sometimes  slender  insects,  of  a  brown  color,  and  more  or 
less  clothed  with  erect  hairs.  Other  characters  are  given  in 
the  preceding  table  of  families.  Nearly  fifty  North  American 
species  are  known. 

The  family  PSELAPHID.E  (Pse-laph'i-dae)  includes  certain 
very  small  beetles,  the  larger  ones  not  exceeding  one  eighth 
inch  in  length.  They  resemble  rove-beetles  in  the  shortness 
of  the  wing-covers  and  in  having  the  dorsal  part  of  the 
abdominal  segments  entirely  horny;  but  they  differ  from 
them  in  that  the  abdomen  is  not  flexible,  and  in  having 
fewer  abdominal  segments,  there  being  only  five  or  six  on 
the  ventral  side.  The  species  are  of  a  chestnut-brown  color 
and  usually  slightly  pubescent.  The  elytra  and  abdomen 
are  convex  and  usually  wider  than  the  head  and  prothorax. 
These  beetles  are  found  under  stones  and  bark,  or  in  ants- 
nests,  or  flying  in  the  twilight.  Nearly  one  hundred  and 
fifty  species  are  known  from  North  America. 


532  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

^ 

Family  STAPHYLINID>E  (Staph-y-lin'i-dae). 
The  Rove-beetles. 

The  rove-beetles  are  very  common  about  decaying  ani- 
mal matter,  and  are  often  found  upon  the  ground,  under 
stones  or  other  objects.  They  are  mostly  very  small  insects ; 
a  few  species,  however,  are  of  larger  size,  measuring  a  half 
inch  or  more  in  length.  Their  appearance  is  very  charac- 
teristic, the  body  being  long  and  slender,  and  the  wing- 
covers  very  short  (Fig.  640).  The  wings,  however, 
are  fully  developed,  often  exceeding  the  abdomen 
in  length  ;  when  not  in  use  the  wings  are  folded 
beneath  the  short  wing-covers.  The  abdominal 
segments  are  freely  movable,  and  are  seven  or  eight 
in  number. 

It  is  interesting  to  watch  one  of  these  insects 
fold  its  wings ;   frequently  they  find  it  necessary 
to  make  use  of  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  or  of  one  of  the  legs 
in  order  to  get  the  wings  folded  beneath  the  wing-covers. 

The  rove-beetles  can  run  quite  swiftly;  and  they  have 
the  curious  habit,  when  disturbed,  of  raising  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen  in  a  threatening  manner,  as  if  they  could  sting. 
As  some  of  the  larger  species  resemble  wasps  somewhat  in 
the  form  of  the  body,  these  threatening  motions  are  often 
as  effective  as  if  the  creature  really  had  a  sting. 

As  these  insects  feed  upon  decaying  animal  and  vegetable 
matter,  they  should  be  classed  as  beneficial.  The  larvae  re- 
semble the  adults  in  the  form  of  the  body  and  are  found  in 
similar  situations. 

About  one  thousand  North  American  species  of  rove- 
beetles  have  been  described.  The  great  majority  of  them 
are  small  and  exceedingly  difficult  to  determine.  Among 
the  large  species  that  are  common  are  the  following  : — 

Creophilus  villosus  (Cre-oph'i-lus  vil-lo'sus). — This  species 
varies  from  one-half  inch  to  nearly  an  inch  in  length.  It  is 
of  a  shining  black  color,  spotted  with  patches  of  fine  gray 


COLEOPTERA.  533 

hairs.  There  is  a  conspicuous  band  of  these  across  the 
middle  of  the  wing-covers,  and  another  on  the  second  and 
third  abdominal  segments ;  this  abdominal  band  is  best 
marked  on  the  lower  side  of  the  body. 

Staphylinus  maculosus  (Staph-y-li'nus  mac-u-lo'sus)  is  a 
larger  species,  which  often  measures  fully  an  inch  in  length. 
It  is  densely  punctured,  and  of  a  dull-brown  color,  with  the 
scutellum  black,  and  a  row  of  obscure,  square,  blackish  spots 
along  the  middle  of  the  abdomen. 

Staphylinus  vulpinus  (S.  vul-pi'nus)  resembles  the  pre- 
ceding somewhat,  but  it  has  a  pair  of  bright-yellow  spots  at 
the  base  of  each  abdominal  segment. 

Lcistotroplius  cingulatus  (Leis-tot'ro-phus  cin-gu-la'tus)  is 
of  about  the  same  size  as  the  preceding.  It  is  brown, 
speckled  with  brownish-black  spots,  and  the  tip  of  its 
abdomen  is  clothed  with  golden  hairs. 

The  family  TRICHOPTERYGID^E  (Tri-chop-te-ryg'i-dae),  or 
the  Feather-wing  Beetles,  includes  the  smallest  beetles  that 
are  known ;  most  of  our  species  are  less  than  one  twenty- 
fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  in  many  cases  they  are  not 
half  that  size.  The  most  striking  feature  of  the  typical 
forms  is  the  shape  of  the  wings,  which  are  long,  narrow,  and 
fringed  with  long  hairs,  being  feather-like  in  appearance ; 
but  in  some  species  the  wings  are  wanting.  Some  species 
live  in  rotten  wood,  muck,  manure,  and  other  decaying 
organic  matter;  a  few  have  been  found  in  ants'  nests. 

The  family  HYDROSCAPHID^:  (Hyd-ro-scaph'i-dae)  is  rep- 
resented in  America  by  a  single,  minute,  aquatic  species 
from  California.  See  table  of  families  for  its  characteristics. 

The  family  SPH^ERIID^E  (Sphae-ri'i-dae)  is  also  repre- 
sented on  this  continent  by  a  single  Californian  species.  It 
lives  in  mud  or  under  stones  near  water.  Its  distinguishing 
features  are  given  in  the  table  of  families. 

The  family  SCAPHIDIID^E  (Scaph-i-di'i-dae)  includes  less 
than  twenty  known  North  American  species.  They  are 


534  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

small,  oval,  very  shining  insects,  found  in  fungi  and  rotten 
wood.  The  elytra  are  broadly  truncate  behind,  not  covering 
the  entire  abdomen. 

The  family  PHALACRID^E  (Pha-lac'ri-dae)  includes  a  small 
number  of  very  small,  convex,  shining  black  beetles,  which 
are  sometimes  two-spotted  or  tipped  with  red.  They  are 
found  on  flowers  and  sometimes  under  bark. 

The  family  CORYLOPHID^E  (Cor-y-loph'i-dae)  includes 
minute  beetles  found  under  damp  bark  and  in  decaying 
vegetable  matter.  The  body  is  oval  or  rounded,  and  in 
many  species  is  clothed  with  a  grayish  pubescence.  The 
wings  are  wide,  and  fringed  with  long  hairs.  About  twenty- 
five  North  American  species  are  known. 

Family  COCCINELLID>E  (Coc-ci-nel'li-dae). 

The  Lady-bugs, 

These  insects  are  well  known  to  nearly  every  child  under 
the  popular  name  given  above.  They  are  more  or  less 
nearly  hemispherical,  generally  red  or  yellow,  with  black 
spots,  or  black,  with  white,  red,  or  yellow  spots. 

The  larvae  occur  running  about  on  foliage ;  they  are 
often  spotted  with  bright  colors  and  clothed  with 
warts  or  with  spines  (Fig.  641).  When  ready  to 
change  to  a  pupa  the  larva  fastens  itself  by  its  tail 
to  any  convenient  object,  and  the  skin  splits  open 
FTG.  64i.  on  the  bade  Sometimes  the  pupa  state  is  passed 
within  this  split  skin,  and  sometimes  the  skin  is  forced 
back  and  remains  in  a  little  wad  about  the  tail  (Fig. 
642). 

With  very  few  exceptions,  the  lady-bugs  are  pre-  FIG.  642. 
daceous,  both  in  the  larval  and  adult  states.  They  feed 
upon  small  insects  and  upon  the  eggs  of  larger  species. 
The  larvae  of  certain  species  are  known  as  "niggers"  by 
hop-growers,  and  are  greatly  prized  by  them  ;  for  they  are 
very  destructive  to  the  hop-louse.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the 
lady-bugs  are  well  known  as  the  most  beneficial  of  all  insects 


i 


COLEOPTERA.  535 

to  the  fruit-growers.  Nothing  more  wonderful  has  been 
accomplished  in  economic  entomology  than  the  subduing  in 
California  of  the  cottony-cushion  scale  by  the  introduction 
from  Australia  of  a  lady-bug,  Vedalia  (Ve-da'li-a),  which 
feeds  upon  it. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  Vedalia  on  the  Pacific  coast 
are  the  twice-stabbed  lady-bugs.  Several  species  that  occur 
on  both  sides  of  the  continent  are  included  under  this  popu- 
lar name.  They  are  black,  with  a  bright-yellow  or  reddish 
spot  on  each  wing-cover.  They  are  especially  prized  in 
California  as  they  feed  on  the  pernicious  scale,  the  black 
scale,  and  other  destructive  species. 

A  very  common  lady-bug  in  the  East  is  Adalia  bipunctata 
(A-da'li-a  bi-punc-ta'ta).  This  species  is  figured  on  Plate  I, 
Figure  3.  It  is  reddish  yellow  above,  with  the  middle  of  the 
prothorax  black,  and  with  a  black  spot  on  each  wing-cover. 
It  frequently  passes  the  winter  in  our  dwellings,  and  is  found 
on  the  walls  and  windows  in  early  spring.  Under  such 
circumstances  it  is  often  mistaken  for  the  carpet-beetle  and, 
unfortunately,  destroyed. 

The    Nine-spotted     Lady-bug,    Coccinella    novemnotata 
(Coc-ci-nel'la  no-vem-no-ta'ta)  has  yellowish  wing- 
covers,  with  four  black  spots  on   each,  in  addition 
to    a   common    spot    just    back   of   the    scutellum 
(Fig.  643). 

The  Herbivorous  Lady-bug,  Epilachna  borealis  (Ep-i- 
lach'na  bor-e-a'lis),  presents  a  remarkable  exception  in  habits 
to  what  is  the  rule  in  this  family.  The  larva  of  this  species 
is  herbivorous,  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  squash,  pumpkin,  and 
allied  plants.  It  is  yellow  and  is  clothed  with  forked  spines 
(Fig.  644).  A  pupa  is  shown  in  the  figure  near  the  upper 
right-hand  corner.  The  adult  is  yellowish,  with  large  black 
spots. 

The  family  ENDOMYCHID,E  (En-do-mych'i-dae)  includes 
a  small  number  of  species  which  are  found  chiefly  in  fungi. 
The  body  is  usually  more  elongate  than  in  the  preceding 


536 


THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


family;  the  antennae  are  about  half  as  long  as  the  body; 
the  prothorax  is  nearly  square,  and  usually  has  a  wide,  thin 
margin,  which  is  slightly  turned  upwards  at  the  sides. 


FIG.  644. 


Family  EROTYLID.E  (Er-o-tyl'i-dae). 
The  Erotylids  (Er-ot1  y-lids). 

The  members  of  this  family  are  usually  of  moderate  or 
small  size;  but  some  species  are  quite  large,  measuring  three 
fourths  inch  or  more  in  length.  Some  of  our  more  common 
species  are  conspicuously  marked  with  shining  black  and  red. 

To  the  genus  Megalodachne  (Meg-a-lo-dach'ne)  belong 
two  common,  large  species,  which  are  black, 
with  two  dull-red  bands  extending  across  the 
wing-covers.  M.  heros  (M.he'ros)  (Fig.  645)  is 
two  thirds  of  an  inch  or  more  in  length.  M, 
fasciata  (M.  fas-ci-a'ta)  is  about  half  an  inch 
long. 

The  genus  Languria  (Lan-gu'ri-a)  includes        FlG' 645 
long,  narrow  species,  which  resemble  click-beetles  in  form. 


I'ne)  belong 

1 


COLEOPTERA. 


537 


Figure   646   represents   L.   mozardi  (L.    mo-zar'di)   greatly 
enlarged.     This  is  a  reddish    species  with  dark-blue  wing- 


FIG.  646. 


covers ;  the  larva  bores  in  the  stalks  of  clover. 

The  family  COLYDIID^E  (Col-y-di'i-dae)  is  composed  of 
small  insects  which  are  usually  of  an  elongate  or  cylindrical 
form,  and  are  found  under  bark,  in  fungi,  and  in  earth. 
Some  of  the  species  are  known  to  be  carnivorous,  feeding 
on  the  larvae  of  wood-boring  beetles.  The  tarsi  are  four- 
jointed  ;  the  tibiae  are  not  fitted  for  digging,  and  the  first 
four  abdominal  segments  are  grown  together  on  the  ventral 
side.  More  than  fifty  North  American  species  are  known. 

The  family  RHYSSODID.E  (Rhys-sod'i-dae)  includes  only 
four  species,  two  from  each  side  of  the  continent.  They 
are  elongate,  somewhat  flattened  beetles,  with  the  head  and 
prothorax  deeply  furrowed  with  longitudinal  grooves.  They 
are  found  under  bark. 

Family  CUCUJID,E  (Cu-cu'ji-dae). 
The  Cucujids  (Cu1  cu-jids). 

The  insects  of  this  family  are  very  flat  and  usually  of 
an  elongate  form ;  most  of  the  species  are  brown,  but  some 
are  of  a  bright  red  color.  As  a  rule  they  are  found  under 
bark  and  are  believed  to  be  carnivorous  both  in  the  larval 
and  adult  states  ;  but  some  feed  in  grain. 


538  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  most  conspicuous  of  our  common  species  is  Cucujus 
clavipes   (Cu'cu-jus    clav'i-pes)    (Fig.   647).     This    insect   is 
about  one  half  inch  in  length  and  of  a  bright  red 
color,  with  the  eyes  and  antennae  black  and  the 
tibiae  and  tarsi  dark. 

The  most  important  member  of  this  family  is 
FIG.  647.  tne  Corn  Silvanus,  Silvanus  surinamensis  (Sil-va'- 
nus  sur-i-na-men'sis),  which  is  one  of  the  small  beetles  that 
infest  stored  grain.  This  species  is  readily  distinguished 
from  other  small  beetles  with  similar  habits  by  its  flattened 
form  and  the  saw-like  edges  of  the  prothorax.  Besides 
grain  it  often  infests  dried  fruits  and  other  stores.  It  meas- 
ures from  one  tenth  to  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  family  CRYPTOPHAGID.E  (Cryp-to-phag'i-dae)  in- 
cludes insects  of  small  size,  usually  less  than  one  tenth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  of  variable  form,  but  never  very  flat. 
The  thorax  is  nearly  or  quite  as  wide  as  the  wing-covers 
and  the  first  ventral  abdominal  segment  is  somewhat  longer 
than  the  others.  They  are  generally  of  a  light  yellowish- 
brown  color,  and  live  on  fungi  and  decomposing  vegetable 
matter. 

The  family  MYCETOPHAGID^E  (My-cet-o-phag'i-dae)  is 
composed  of  small,  oval,  rarely  elongate,  moderately  convex 
beetles.  They  are  densely  punctured  and  hairy,  and  are 
usually  prettily  marked  insects.  They  live  on  fungi  and 
under  bark. 

Family  DERMESTID^E  (Der-mes'ti-dae). 
The  Dermestids  (Der-mes' tids). 

There  are  several  families  of  small  beetles  that  feed  on 
decaying  matter,  or  on  skins,  furs,  and  dried  animal  sub- 
stances. The  most  important  of  these  is  the  Dermestidae. 
as  several  species  belonging  to  this  family  destroy  house- 
hold stores  or  goods. 

The  Dermestids  can  be  distinguished  from  most  of  the 


COLEOPTERA.  539 

other  beetles  with  similar  habits  by  the  fact  that  the  wing- 
covers  completely  cover  the  abdomen.  They  are  chiefly 
small  beetles,  although  one  of  the  common  species  measures 
one  third  inch  in  length.  They  are  usually  oval,  plump 
beetles,  with  pale  gray  or  brown  markings,  which  are  formed 
by  minute  scales,  which  can  be  rubbed  off.  These  beetles 
have  the  habit  of  pretending  that  they  are  dead  when  they 
are  disturbed  ;  they  will  roll  over  on  their  backs  with  their 
legs  meekly  folded  and  lie  still  for  a  long  period. 

The  larvae  do  much  more  damage  than  the  adults.  They 
are  active,  and  are  clothed  with  long  hairs.  These  hairs  are 
covered  throughout  their  entire  length  with  microscopic 
barbs. 

The  Larder  Beetle,  Dermestes  lardarius  (Der-mes'tes 
lar-da'ri-us). — This  pest  of  the  larder  is  the  most  common  of 
the  larger  members  of  this  family.  It  is  three  tenths  of  an 
inch  long,  and  black  except  the  basal  half  of  its  wing-covers, 
which  are  pale  buff  or  brownish  yellow.  This  lighter  portion 
is  usually  crossed  by  a  band  of  black  spots,  three  on  each 
wing-cover  (Fig.  648).  The  larva  feeds  on  dead  animal 
matter,  as  meat,  skins,  feathers  and  cheese.  It  is 
often  a  serious  pest  where  bacon  or  ham  are  stored. 
When  full  grown  it  is  about  half  an  inch  in  length, 
dark  brown  above,  whitish  below,  and  rather  thickly  FIG.  648. 
covered  with  long,  brown  hairs.  It  is  said  that  this  insect 
can  be  attracted  by  baits  of  old  cheese,  from  which  they 
may  be  gathered  and  destroyed. 

The  Carpet  Beetle,  Anthrenus  scrophularia  (An-thre'nus 
scroph-u-la'ri-ae). — During  recent  years  this  insect  has  be- 
come the  worst  of  household  pests,  feeding  in  its  larval  state 
on  carpets,  woollens,  furs,  and  feathers.  The  larva  is  well- 
known  to  many  housekeepers  as  the  Buffalo-moth.  It  is  a 
short,  fat  grub,  about  one  fifth  of  an  inch  in  length  when 
full  grown,  and  densely  clothed  with  dark  brown  hairs.  It 
lives  in  the  cracks  of  floors,  near  the  edges  of  rooms,  and  be- 
neath furniture,  where  it  eats  holes  in  the  carpet.  It  also 


540  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

enters  wardrobes  and  destroys  clothing.  The  adult  is  a 
pretty  little  beetle  which  may  be  found  in  infested  houses, 
in  the  spring,  on  the  ceilings  and  windows.  It  is  about  one 
seventh  of  an  inch  in  length  and  clothed  with  black,  white, 
and  brick-red  scales  (Plate  I,  Fig.  I).  There  is  a  whitish 
spot  on  each  side  of  the  prothorax,  and  three  irregular, 
whitish  spots  on  the  outer  margin  of  each  wing-cover  ;  along 
the  suture  where  the  two  wing-covers  meet  there  is  a  band 
of  brick-red  scales,  which  is  widened  in  several  places.  It  is 
worth  while  to  learn  to  know  this  beetle ;  for  a  Lady-bug 
(Plate  I,  Fig.  3),  which  often  winters  in  our  houses,  is  fre- 
quently mistaken  for  it.  The  Carpet  Beetle  in  its  adult 
state  feeds  on  the  pollen  of  flowers.  Sometimes  it  abounds 
on  the  blossoms  of  currant,  cherry,  and  other  fruits.  The 
best  way  to  avoid  the  ravages  of  this  pest  is  to  use  rugs  in- 
stead of  carpets,  and  to  trap  the  larvae  by  placing  woollen 
cloths  on  the  floors  of  closets.  By  shaking  such  cloths 
over  a  paper  once  a  week  the  larvae  can  be  captured. 

The  change  from  carpets  to  rugs  is  a  very  desirable  one  ; 
for  carpets  that  are  tacked  to  the  floor  and  taken  up  only 
once  or  twice  a  year  are  unwholesome.  The  change  need 
not  be  a  very  expensive  one.  As  carpets  wear  out  they 
may  be  replaced  with  rugs ;  and  good  carpets  can  be  made 
over  into  rugs.  If  the  floors  are  not  polished  as  is  usually 
the  case  where  it  was  planned  to  cover  them  with  carpets, 
they  can  be  made  presentable  by  filling  the  cracks  with 
putty  and  painting  the  boards  where  they  are  to  be  exposed. 

The  museum  pests,  Anthrenus  varius  (An-thre'nus  va'- 
ri-us)  and  Anthrenus  museorum  (A.  mu-se-o'rum). — There 
are  two  minute  species  of  this  family  that  are  a  constant 
source  of  annoyance  to  those  having  collections  of  insects. 

The  adult  beetles  measure  less  than  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
in  length,  and  are  very  convex.  They  deposit  their  eggs  on 
specimens  in  our  collections  ;  and  the  larvae  feed  upon  the 
specimens,  often  destroying  them.  In  order  to  preserve  a 
collection  of  insects  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  kept 


COLEOPTERA.  541 

in  tight  cases,  so  that  these  pests  cannot  gain  access  to  them. 
Specimens  should  not  be  left  exposed  except  when  in  use. 
And  the  entire  collection  should  be  carefully  examined  at 
least  once  a  month.  The  injury  is  done  by  the  larvae, 
which  are  small,  plump,  hairy  grubs.  Their  presence  is  in- 
dicated by  a  fine  dust  that  falls  on  to  the  bottom  of 
the  case  from  the  infested  specimens.  These  larvae 
can  be  destroyed  by  pouring  a  small  quantity  of  car- 
bon bisulphide  into  the  case,  and  keeping  it  tightly 
closed  for  a  day  or  two.  Benzine  poured  on  a  bit  of  cotton 
in  the  box  will  cause  the  pests  to  leave  the  specimens,  when 
they  may  be  taken  from  the  box  and  destroyed.  But  we 
have  found  carbon  bisulphide  the  better  agent  for  the  de- 
struction of  these  pests. 

The  Raspberry  Fruit-worm,  Byturus  unicolor  (By-tu'rus 
u-ni-co'lor). — The  fruit  of  the  red  raspberry  is  often  infested 
by  a  small  white  worm,  which  clings  to  the  inside  of  the 
berry  after  it  is  picked.  This  is  the  larva  of  an  oval,  pale, 
dull  yellow  beetle,  which  is  densely  clothed  with 
short,  fine,  gray  hairs.  The  beetle  is  represented 
enlarged  in  Figure  649;  it  measures  about  three 
twentieths  of  an  inch  in  length.  This  insect  is  also 
injurious  in  the  adult  state,  as  it  feeds  on  the  bios-  FlG-6«- 
soms  of  the  raspberry. 

The  family  HlSTERID^E  (His-ter'i-dae)  includes  certain 
easily  recognized  beetles  which  are  found  about  carrion  and 
other   decomposing   substances.     They   are    mostly   small, 
short,  rounded,  or  somewhat  square-shaped    beetles,   of   a 
shining  black  color,  with  the-wing  covers  marked  by  lines 
v        ,       of  fine  punctures  and  truncate  behind,  leaving  two 
/Wk       segments  of  the  abdomen  exposed  (Fig.  650).     In 
ffj        some  species  the  wing-covers  are  marked  with  red. 
F.G.  6So.  The  family  NlTlDULiD^E  (Nit-i-du'li-dae)  com- 

prises small,  somewhat  flattened  beetles.  With  many  spe- 
cies the  prothorax  has  wide,  thin  margins,  and  the  wing- 
covers  are  more  or  less  truncate,  so  as  to  leave  the  tip  of  the 


542  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

abdomen  exposed  ;  but  sometimes  the  elytra  are  entire. 
The  tarsi  are  usually  five-jointed,  with  the  fourth  segment 
very  small ;  they  are  more  or  less  dilated  ;  the  posterior 
coxae  are  flat,  not  sulcate  ;  the  anterior  coxae  are  transverse  ; 
and  the  abdomen  has  five  free,  ventral  segments. 

fOne  of  the  most  common  representatives  of 
this  family  is  Ips  fasciatus  (Ips  fas-ci-a'tus).  (Fig. 
651.)  It  is  a  shining  black  species,  with  two  con- 
FIG.  65i.  spicuous,  interrupted,  reddish  bands  across  the 
wing-covers. 

The  family  TROGOSITID^E  (Trog-o-sit'i-dae)  includes  ob- 
long, somewhat  flattened  beetles,  of  a  black  or  reddish-black 
color.  Most  of  them  live  under  bark;  but  some  are  found 
in  granaries.  They  differ  from  members  of  the  preceding 
family  in  having  slender  tarsi,  with  the  first  segment  very 
short. 

The  family  MONOTOMID^  (Mon-o-tom'i-das)  is  composed 
of  a  few  small,  depressed  beetles,  found  mostly  under  the 
bark  of  trees.  The  wing-covers  are  truncate  behind,  leaving 
the  last  abdominal  segment  exposed. 

The  family  LATHRIDIID/E  (Lath-ri-di'i-dae)  includes  very 
small  beetles,  which  live  under  bark  and  stones  and  are 
sometimes  caught  flying  in  twilight.  They  are  oblong ;  the 
wing-covers  are  usually  wider  than  the  prothorax  and 
entirely  cover  the  abdomen. 

The  family  DERODONTID^E  (Der-o-don'ti-dae)  is  repre- 
sented by  a  single  species  found  in  the  East  and  two  found 
in  Oregon  and  northward.  The  eastern  species  is  a  small 
brown  beetle  with  a  tubercle  on  each  side  inside  the  eye. 

The  family  BYRRHID^E  (Byr'rhi-dae)  or  the  pill-beetles  are 
short,  very  convex  beetles  of  small  or  moderate  size ;  some, 
however,  are  half  an  inch  in  length.  The  body  is  clothed 
with  hairs  or  minute  scales.  The  legs  can  be  folded  up  very 
compactly,  the  tibia  usually  having  a  furrow  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  tarsus.  These  beetles  are  found  upon  walks  and 


CO  LEO P  TERA .  5  43 

at  the  roots  of  trees  and  grass ;  a  few  live  under  the  bark  of 
trees. 

The  family  GEORYSSID^E  (Ge-o-rys'si-dae)  includes  only 
two  American  species.  "  They  are  small,  rounded,  convex, 
roughly  sculptured,  black  insects,  found  at  the  margin  of 
streams,  on  wet  sand  ;  they  cover  themselves  with  a  mass  of 
mud,  so  that  no  part  of  the  insect  is  visible."  (LeConte  and 
Horn.) 

The  family  PARNID^E  (Par'ni-dae)  includes  small  water 
beetles,  in  which  the  legs  are  not  fitted  for  swimming.  The 
tarsi  are  five-jointed  ;  the  first  four  segments  of  the  tarsi  are 
short  and  equal ;  the  fifth  is  longer  than  the  others  con- 
joined ;  the  tarsal  claws  are  unusually  large.  The  body  is 
clothed  with  fine,  silken  hairs,  which  retain  a  film  of  air  when 
the  insect  is  beneath  the  water.  These  beetles  are  found 
adhering  to  stones  or  plants  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water. 
The  larva  of  Psephenus  lecontei  (Pse-phe'nus  le-con'te-i)  is 
common  in  the  East,  clinging  to  the  lower  surface  of  stones 
in  rapid  streams;  and  we  have  found  it  in  muck  near  a 
spring.  It  is  very  flat  and  circular  in  outline 
(Fig.  652),  and  measures  about  five  sixteenths 
of  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  rarely  recognized 
as  an  insect  by  the  young  collector.  Other 
larvae  of  this  family  have  similar  habits,  and 
resemble  this  species  in  form  except  that  the 
margin  of  the  body  is  notched  between  the 
segments. 

FIG.  652. 

The  family  HETEROCERID^:  (Het-e-ro- 
cer'i-dae)  includes  only  the  genus  Heteroccrus  (Het-e-roc'e- 
rus).  These  beetles  "  are  oblong  or  subelongate,  oval, 
densely  clothed  with  short  silky  pubescence,  very  finely 
punctate,  and  of  a  brown  color,  with  the  elytra  usually  vari- 
egated with  undulated  bands  or  spots  of  a  yellow  color. 
They  live  in  galleries  which  they  excavate  in  sand  or  mud 
at  the  margin  of  bodies  of  water,  and,  when  disturbed,  run 
from  their  galleries  and  take  flight."  (LeConte  and  Horn.) 


544  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

The  family  DASCYLLID^:  (Das-cyl'li-dae)  includes  certain 
beetles  that  live  on  plants,  usually  near  the  water.  The  legs 
are  short  with  slender  tibiae ;  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed  ;  the 
posterior  coxae  are  transverse,  and  dilated  into  a  plate  partly 
covering  the  femora  ;  the  anterior  coxae  are  transverse  ;  and 
the  abdomen  has  five  free,  ventral  segments,  the  fifth 
rounded  at  tip.  About  fifty  species  occur  in  North  America. 
The  larvae,  of  several  species  at  least,  live  in  rotten  wood. 

The  family  R.HIPICERID.E  (Rhip-i-cer'i-dae)  is  represented 
in  this  country  by  a  very  small  number  of  species,  which  are 
most  commonly  found  on  cedars.  The  antennae  are  serrate 
in  the  females,  frequently  flabellate  in  the  males.  The  an- 
terior and  middle  coxae  are  conical  and  prominent,  the 
former  with  large  trochantins ;  the  posterior  coxae  are 
transverse,  and  dilated  into  a  small  plate  partly  covering  the 
femora. 

Family  ELATERID^:  (El-a-ter'i-dae). 
The  Click-beetles  or  Elaters  (El'a-ters). 

There  is  hardly  a  country  child  that  has  not  been  enter- 
tertained  by  the  acrobatic  performances  of  the  long,  tidy- 
appearing  beetles  called  snapping-bugs,  click-beetles, 
or  skip-jacks  (Fig.  653).  Touch  one  of  them  and  it 
at  once  curls  up  its  legs,  and  drops  as  if  shot ;  it 
usually  lands  on  its  back,  and  lies  there  for  a  time  as 
FIG.  653.  if  dead.  Suddenly  there  is  a  click,  and  the  insect 
pops  up  into  the  air  several  inches.  If  it  comes  down  on  its 
back,  it  tries  again  and  again  until  it  succeeds  in  striking  on 
its  feet,  and  then  it  runs  off. 

We  remember  well  carrying  these  creatures  into  the  old 
district  schoolhouse,  where  all  lessons  had  to  be  learned 
from  books,  and  where  Nature  was  never  given  a  chance  to 
teach  us  anything.  Here,  with  one  eye  on  the  teacher  and 
one  on  this  interesting  jumper  laid  on  our  book  behind  the 
desk,  we  found  a  most  fascinating  occupation  for  the  tedi- 
ous moments.  But  the  end  was  always  the  same:  the 


COLEOPTERA.  545 

beetle  jumped  so  high  that  it  betrayed  us  and  was  liber- 
ated, and  we  were  disgraced. 

Our  common  species  of  click-beetles  are  mostly  small  or 
of  medium  size,  ranging  from  one  tenth  to  three  fourths  of 
an  inch  in  length.  A  few  species  are  larger,  some  reaching 
the  length  of  nearly  two  inches.  The  majority  of  the 
species  are  of  a  uniform  brownish  color; 
some  are  black  or  grayish,  and  some  are 
conspicuously  spotted  (Fig.  654).  The  body 
is  elongated,  somewhat  flattened,  and  tapers 
more  or  less  towards  each  end  ;  the  antennae 
are  moderately  elongated,  and  more  or  less  FlG  6j4  _  A  click. 
serrate  ;  the  first  and  second  abdominal  seg-  SS^.^IwtuMj 
ments  are  not  grown  together  on  the  ventral  size  and  enlareed- 
side ;  and  the  hind  coxae  are  each  furnished  with  a  groove 
for  the  reception  of  the  femur. 

The  larvae  of  click-beetles  are  long,  narrow,  worm-like 
creatures,  very  even  in  width,  with  a  very  hard  .covering, 
and  are  brownish  or  yellowish  white  in  color  (Figs.  655  and 


FIG.  655.  FIG.  656. 

656).     They  are  commonly  known  as  wire-worms,  a  name 
suggested  by  the  form  and  hardness  of  the  body. 

Some  wire-worms  live  under  the  bark  of  trees  and  in 
rotten  wood  ;  but  many  of  them  live  in  the  ground,  and 
feed  on  seeds  and  the  roots  of  grass  and  grain.  In  fact 
there  is  hardly  a  cultivated  plant  that  they  do  not  infest ; 
and,  working  as  they  do  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
it  is  extremely  difficult  to  destroy  them.  Not  only  do  they 
infest  a  great  variety  of  plants,  but  they  are  very  apt  to 
attack  them  at  the  most  susceptible  period  of  their  growth, 
before  they  have  attained  sufficient  size  and  strength  to 
withstand  the  attack  ;  and  often  seed  is  destroyed  before 
it  has  germinated.  Thus  fields  of  corn  or  other  grain  are 


546 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


ruined    at   the    outset.     The   appearance    of    these    insects 
when  in  the  ground,  as  seen  through  the  glass  side  of  one 

of  our  root- 
cages,  is 
shown  in 
Fig.  657. 

There 
is    a    vast 

number  of  species  of  click- 
beetles  ;  more  than  five  hun- 


FIG.  658.— Larva  of  Cryptohypnus  abbre- 
ti  iatus :  a,  clypeus;  d,  mandible;  c. 
maxilla  ;  d,  gula;  e,  caudal  segment. 


FIG.  659.-Lar 

FIG.  657 -A  corn-plant    growing  in   a  root-       ^T^^S^SStl 
cage    infested    by    wire-worms    and   click-       guul  •  r>  **" 

beetles   (from  a  specimen    in   the    Cornell  .,        . 

Insectary).     The  spotted  beetle  represented    cJred      have     been      described 
near  the  base  of  the   plant   is  Drasterius 

elegans,    that  near  the  top  of  the  plant  is    frOm    North   America    alOHC. 
Agr totes  mancus. 

It  is  quite  difficult  to  sep- 
arate the  closely-allied  species,  as  there  is  but  little  variation 
in  shape  and  color.  The  larvae  also  show  comparatively 


COLEOPTERA.  547 

little  variation  in  form  ;  but  in  this  stage  the  shape  of  the 
parts  of  the  head  and  the  last  segment  of  the  body  often 
furnish  reliable  specific  characters  (Figs.  658  and  659). 

In  those  species  that  we  have  bred  it  requires  several 
years  for  the  larva  to  complete  its  growth.  In  these  species 
the  full-grown  larva  changes  to  a  pupa  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  summer,  in  a  little  cell  in  the  ground  ;  the  pupa  soon 
afterwards  changes  to  an  adult ;  but  the  adult  remains  in 
the  cell  formed  by  the  larva  till  the  following  spring. 

Although  we  tried  an  extensive  series  of  experiments, 
extending  over  several  years,  we  were  unable  to  find  any 
satisfactory  way  of  destroying  the  larvae  infesting  field 
crops.  But  we  found  that  if  the  cells  containing  pupae  or 
recently-transformed  adults  were  broken  the  insects  per- 
shed.  We  conclude,  therefore,  that  much  can  be  done 
towards  keeping  these  insects  in  check  by  fall-ploughing; 
for  in  this  way  many  of  the  cells  containing  pupae  or  young 
adults  would  be  broken. 

The  Eyed  Elater,  Alaus  oculatus  (A'laus  oc-u-la'tus). — 
Although  most  of  our  click-beetles  are  of  moderate  size,  we 
have  a  few  species  that  are  large.  The  most  common  of 
these  is  the  Eyed  Elater  (El'a-ter).  This 
is  the  great  pepper-and-salt-colored  fellow 
that  has  two  large,  black,  velvety,  eye- 
like  spots  on  the  prothorax  (Fig.  660). 
These  are  not  its  eyes,  however.  The  true 
eyes  are  situated  one  on  each  side  of  the 
head  near  the  base  of  the  antenna.  This 
insect  varies  greatly  in  size,  some  individ- 
uals being  not  more  than  half  as  large  as 
others.  The  larger  larvae  are  about  two 
and  a  half  inches  long,  and  nearly  four 
tenths  of  an  inch  wide  across  the  middie 
of  the  body.  They  live  upon  decaying  FlG-  &°- 

wood,  and  are  often  found  in  the  trunks  of  old  apple-trees. 

There  is  an   Elater  quite  similar  to  the  preceding  that 


548  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

differs  in  having  the  eye-like  spots  less  distinctly  marked, 
and  is  not  as  common.     This  is  Alaus  myops  (A.  my'ops). 

The  family  THROSCID^E  (Thros'ci-dae)  includes  a  few 
small  species  which  resemble  the  Elaters  and  Buprestids  in 
having  the  prosternum  prolonged  behind  into  a  process, 
which  is  received  in  the  mesosternum.  They  differ  from 
the  Elaters  in  having  the  prothorax  firmly  joined  to  the 
mesothorax,  and  the  front  coxal  cavities  closed  behind  by 
the  mesosternum  instead  of  by  the  prosternum ;  and  from 
the  Buprestids  in  having  the  ventral  abdominal  segments 
all  free.  The  adult  beetles  are  found  on  flowers. 

Family  BUPRESTID/E  (Bu-pres'ti-dae). 
The  Metallic  Wood-borers  or  Buprestids  (Bu-pres' tids). 

The  Buprestids  resemble  the  click-beetles  somewhat  in 
form,  being  rather  long  and  narrow;  but  they  are  easily 
recognized  by  their  metallic  coloring.  Their  bodies  are 
hard  and  inflexible,  and  usually  appear  as  if  made  of 
bronze  ;  but  some  species  exhibit  the  brightest  of  metallic 
colors.  The  antennae  are  serrate;  the  first  and  second 
abdominal  segments  are  grown  together  on  the  ventral 
side ;  and  these  beetles  do  not  have  the  power  of  springing 
when  placed  on  the  back. 

The  adults  are  found  upon  flowers  and  upon  the  bark  of 
trees,  basking  in  the  hot  sunshine.  Some  of  them  fly  very 
rapidly,  with  a  loud  buzzing  noise ;  and  some  drop  to  the 
ground  when  disturbed,  and  feign  death. 

Most  of  the  larvae  are  borers,  feeding  beneath  bark  or 
within  solid  wood.  In  such  species  the  body  is  of  a  very 
characteristic  form,  which  is  commonly  designated  as  "  flat- 
headed."  The  flattened  portion,  however,  is  composed 
largely  of  the  segments  immediately  following  the  head. 
The  first  thoracic  segment  is  very  wide  and  flat ;  the  next 
two  or  three  segments  are  also  flattened,  but  are  successively 
smaller;  while  the  rest  of  the  body  is  quite  narrow  and 
cylindrical.  These  "flat-headed"  larvae  are  legless,  and 


COLE  OP  TERA.  5  49 

have  been  compared  to  tadpoles  on  account  of  their  form. 
Their  burrows  are  flattened,  corresponding  with  the  shape 
of  the  larger  part  of  the  body.  In  some  of  the  smaller 
species  the  larvae  are  cylindrical,  and  are  furnished  with  three 
pairs  of  legs.  These  are  leaf-miners;  and  in  the  adult  state 
the  body  is  much  shorter  than  in  the  more  typical  species. 

The  Virginian  Buprestid,  ChalcopJiora  virginica  (Chal- 
coph'o-ra  vir-gin'i-ca). — This  is  the  largest  of  our  common 
Buprestids  (Fig.  661).  It  is  copper-colored, 
often  almost  black,  and  has  its  upper  surface 
roughened  by  irregular,  lengthwise  furrows. 
This  beetle  appears  late  in  spring  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  pine-trees.  The  larvae  bore  in  the  wood 
of  pine,  and  are  often  very  injurious. 

The  Dicerca  divaricata  (Di-cer'ca  di-var-i- 
ca'ta)  is  three  quarters  of  an  inch  or  more  in  FlG  66l> 
length,  copper-colored  or  brassy  above,  with  the  wing-covers 
marked  with  square,  elevated,  black  spots.  The 
wing-covers  taper  very  much  behind,  and  are 
separated  at  the  tips  (Fig.  662).  The  larva  bores 
in  peach,  cherry,  beech,  and  maple. 

The  Flat-headed  Apple-tree  Borer,  ChrysobotJi- 
ris  femorata  (Chrys-o-both'ris  fem-o-ra'ta). — This 
F.G.  662.  js  one  Of  the  most  injurious  of  all  Buprestids.  The 
adult  (Fig.  663)  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  is  a  very  dark 
green  above,  with  bronze  reflections,  especially  in 
the  furrows  of  the  wing-covers.  It  appears  during 
June  and  July,  and  lays  its  eggs  upon  the  trunk  and 
limbs  of  apple,  peach,  oak,  and  other  trees.  The 
larvae  at  first  bore  into  the  bark  and  sap-wood,  and  FlG-  663- 
later  into  the  solid  wood.  The  transformations  are  com- 
pleted in  one  year. 

To  prevent  the  ravages  of  this  pest,  the  trees  are  rubbed 
with  soap  during  June  or  July,  or  cakes  of  soap  are  placed  in 
the  forks  of  the  trees,  so  that  the  rains  will  dissolve  the  soap 
and  wash  it  down  over  the  trunks.  This  is  supposed  to 


-t  y    ucu  rv. 

i 


550  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

prevent  the  beetles  from  depositing  their  eggs  on  the  trees. 
After  a  tree  is  once  infested,  the  larvae  should  be  cut  out 
with  a  gouge  or  a  knife.  Nursery  stock  that  is  infested  should 
be  promptly  burned. 

The  Red-necked  Agrilus,  Agrilus  ruficollis  (Ag'ri-lus  ruf- 
ol'lis). — This  beetle  (Fig.  664)  is  about  three  tenths 
of  an  inch  long.  Its  body  is  narrow  and  nearly  cyl- 
indrical. The  head  is  of  a  dark-bronze  color,  the 
prothorax  of  a  beautiful  coppery  bronze,  and  the 
wing  covers  black.  The  larva  bores  in  the  stems  of 
FIG.  664.  raspberry  and  blackberry,  causing  a  large  swelling, 
known  as  the  Raspberry  Gouty-gall.  These  galls  should  be 
collected  and  burned  in  early  spring. 

Family  LAMPYRID^E  (Lam-pyr'i-dae). 
The  Firefly  Family  or  Lampyrids  (Lam-py  rids). 

During  some  warm,  moist  evening  early  in  our  Northern 
June  we  are  startled  to  see  here  and  there  a  tiny  meteor  shoot 
out  of  the  darkness  near  at  hand,  and  we  suddenly  realize  that 
summer  is  close  upon  us,  heralded  by  her  mysterious  mes- 
sengers, the  fireflies.  A  week  or  two  later  these  little  torch- 
bearers  appear  in  full  force,  and  the  gloom  that  overhangs 
marshes  and  wet  meadows,  the  dusk  that  shrouds  the  banks 
of  streams  and  ponds,  the  darkness  that  haunts  the  borders 
of  forests,  are  illumined  with  myriads  of  flashes  as  these 
silent,  winged  hosts  move  hither  and  thither  under  the  cove." 
of  the  night. 

The  fireflies  are  soft-bodied  beetles  of  medium  or  small 
size,  with  slender,  usually  eleven-jointed,  saw-like  an- 
tennae.    The  prothorax  is  expanded  into  a  thin  pro- 
jecting   margin,    which    in    most    cases    completely 
covers  the  head  (Fig.  665).      The  wing-covers  are 
rather  soft,  and  never  strongly  embrace  the  sides  of   FlG-  66s- 
the  abdomen,  as  with  most  other  beetles. 

Most  members  of  this  family  are  nocturnal  insects,  and 


COLEOPTERA.  55 1 

are  sluggish  by  day.     On  the  other  hand,  a  few  species  are 
very  active  in  the  brightest  sunshine. 

The  most  common  of  these  day-fliers  are  the  soldier- 
beetles,  Chauliognatkus  (Chaul-i-og'na-thus).  These  are  very 
abundant  in  late  summer  and  autumn  on  various  flowers,  but 
especially  on  those  of  the  goldenrod.  There  are  two  very 
common  species :  the  Pennsylvania  Soldier-beetle,  Chauliog- 
nathus pennsylvanicus  (C.  penn-syl-van'i-cus),  which  is  yellow, 
with  a  black  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  prothorax  and  one 
near  the  tip  of  each  wing-cover  (Fig.  666) ;  and  the  Margined 


FIG.  666.  FIG.  667.  FIG.  668. 

Soldier-beetle,  C.  marginatus  (C.  mar-gi-na'tus).  This  species 
(Fig.  667)  may  be  distinguished  from  the  former  by  the  head 
and  lower  part  of  the  thighs  being  orange.  The  beetles 
of  this  genus  are  remarkable  for  having  an  extensible, 
fleshy  filament  attached  to  each  maxilla.  These  filaments 
are  probably  used  in  collecting  pollen  and  nectar  from 
flowers. 

Another  common  diurnal  Lampyrid  is  Calopteron  reticu- 
latum  (Ca-lop'te-ron  re-tic-u-la'tum)  (Fig.  668).  This  species 
represents  a  group  in  which  the  wing-covers  are  covered  with 
a  network  of  fine  elevated  lines.  These  insects  are  found  on 
the  leaves  of  plants,  where  they  seek  and  feed  upon  other 
insects. 

The  true  Fireflies  are  nocturnal,  and  are  furnished  with 
a  light-giving  apparatus,  which  is  situated  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  abdomen  ;  the  exact  position  of  these  organs  differs 
in  different  genera.  Figure  665  represents  a  common  species. 


552  THE    STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  family  MALACHIID.E  (Mal-a-chi'i-dae)  is  composed 
chiefly  of  small  or  very  small  beetles,  found  on  flowers,  and 
on  the  ground  near  water.  They  vary  greatly  in  form  ;  but 
bear  a  general  resemblance  in  structure  to  the  preceding 
family,  from  which  they  can  be  distinguished  by  the  presence 
of  only  six  ventral  abdominal  segments.  Some  members  of 
the  family  are  furnished  with  soft,  orange-colored  vesicles 
which  they  protrude  from  the  sides  of  the  body,  and 
which  are  supposed  to  be  scent  organs  for  defence. 
One  of  our  most  common  representatives  is  Collops 
qiiadriinaculatus  (Col'lops  quad-ri-mac-u-la'tus),  which  Fl 
is  yellowish  orange,  with  the  top  of  the  head  and  four  spots 
on  the  wing-covers  bluish  black  (Fig.  670). 

Family  CLERID^:  (Cler'i-dae.) 
The  Checkered  Beetles. 

The  family  Cleridae  includes  a  considerable  number  of 
species  which  are  found  on  flowers  and  on  the  trunks  of 
trees.  Many  of  them  are  beautifully  marked  with  strongly 
contrasting  colors;  this  has  suggested  the  common  name 
checkered  beetles  for  them.  Frequently  they  are  more  or 
less  ant-like  in  form,  the  prothorax  being  in  these  cases 
narrower  than  the  wing-covers,  and  slightly  narrower  than 
the  head.  The  abdomen  has  either  five  or  six  ventral  seg- 
ments ;  the  anterior  coxae  are  conical,  prominent,  and  con- 
tiguous, or  very  slightly  separate  ;  the  hind  coxae  are  trans- 
verse, not  prominent,  and  covered  by  the  femora  in  repose ; 
the  legs  are  slender ;  and  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed. 

In  the  larval  state  these  insects  are  usually  carnivorous, 
living  under  bark  and  in  the  burrows  of  wood-boring  insects, 
upon  which  they  prey;  some  are  found  in  the  nests  of  bees ; 
and  still  others  feed  on  dead  animal  matter. 

Figure  671  represents  one  of  our  more  common  species, 
Trichodes  nuttalli  (Tri-cho'des  nut-tal'li). 


COLEOPTERA.  553 


i 


The  family  PTINID.E  (Ptin'i-dae)  or  the  Death-watch 
Family  is  composed  of  small  insects,  which  rarely 
exceed  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  very  many 
of  them  are  not  half  that  length.  They  are  usually 
of  a  cinnamon-brown  color,  but  not  always  so.  The 
most  distinctive  structural  feature  is  the  position  of  FlG- 6?1- 
the  trochanters,  which  are  situated  between  the  femora  and 
coxae,  instead  of  at  one  side  of  the  base  of  the  femur  in  each 
case.  These  insects  usually  live  upon  dead  vegetable  matter, 
and  frequently  upon  that  which  has  begun  to  decay  ;  but  some 
bore  into  solid  wood,  and  others  attack  living  plants.  One 
of  the  latter  is  the  Apple-twig  Borer,  Amp/iicerus  bicaudatus 
(Am-phic'e-rus  bi-cau-da'tus),  which  often  injuriously  affects 
the  twigs  of  apple-trees ;  the  adult  beetle  is  about  three 
tenths  of  an  inch  long,  and  the  male  has  two  thorn-like  pro- 
jections from  the  ends  of  the  wing-covers.  The  Cigarette 
Beetle,  Lasioderma  serricorne  (Las-i-o-der'ma  ser-ri-cor'ne)  is 
a  serious  pest  in  tobacco  manufactories,  infesting  the  dried 
tobacco-leaves  and  the  manufactured  products.  Sitodrepa 
panicea  (Si-tod're-pa  pa-nic'e-a)  is  a  cosmopolitan  species, 
which  feeds  on  many  kinds  of  dead  organic  matter,  both 
animal  and  vegetable.  It  sometimes  assumes  the  role  of  a 
bookworm.  We  have  bred  it  in  large  numbers  from  the 
cover  of  a  very  old  book,  a  copy  of  Dante's  Divine  Comedy 
printed  in  1536.  It  seems  that  old  books  are  much  more 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  bookworms  than  others. 

The  family  CUPESID/E  (Cu-pes'i-dae)  includes  only  four 
American  species.  These  are  found  under  the  bark  of  de- 
caying trees,  and  sometimes  in  houses.  The  body  is  covered 
with  small  scales;  other  characteristics  are  given  in  the  table 
of  families. 

The  family  LYMEXYLID/E  (Lym-ex-yl'i-dae)  is  also  a  very 
small  family.  It  is  represented  in  this  country  by  only  three 
species.  Its  chief  interest  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  includes 
the  Ship-timber  beetle,  Lymexylon  navale  (Ly-mex'y-lcm  na- 
va'le)  of  Europe. 


554  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  family  CllD/E  (Ci'i-dae)  includes  a  small  number  of 
very  small  beetles,  found  under  the  bark  of  trees  and  in  the 
dry  and  woody  species  of  fungus.  The  body  is  cylindrical ; 
the  prothorax  is  prolonged  over  the  head ;  the  abdomen  has 
five  ventral  segments,  of  which  the  first  is  longer  than  the 
others ;  and  the  tarsi  are  all  four-jointed. 

The  family  SPHINDID^:  (Sphin'di-dae)  is  represented  in 
North  America  by  only  three  small  species,  which  are  found 
in  dry  fungi,  which  grow  on  the  trunks  of  trees.  Although 
the  antennae  are  clubbed,  and  these  beetles  are  commonly 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Clavicornia,  the  tarsi  -are  like 
those  of  the  Heteromera,  the  fore  and  middle  tarsi  being 
five-jointed  and  the  hind  tarsi  four-jointed. 

Family  LUCANIDJE  (Lu-can'i-dae). 
The  Stag-beetles. 

The  stag-beetles  are  so  called  on  account  of  their  large 
mandibles,  which  in  the  males  of  some  species  are  branched 
like  the  antlers  of  a  stag.  But  they  are  more  surely  distin- 
guished by  the  form  of  the  antennae,  which  are  lamellate ; 
but  the  plates  composing  the  club  are  not  capable  of  close 
apposition,  and  usually  are  not  flattened.  The  student  should 
carefully  distinguish  between  this  type  of  antenna  and  that 
of  the  Scarabaeidae,  where  the  terminal  segments  are  greatly 
flattened  and  can  be  brought  close  together  so  as  to  form  a 
compact  club. 

The  adult  beetles  are  found  on  the  trunks  of  trees,  and 
are  said,  by  Harris,  to  live  upon  sap,  for  procuring  which  the 
brushes  of  their  jaws  and  lips  seem  to  be  designed  ;  but  it 
seems  probable  that  some  species  at  least  feed  upon  decom- 
posing wood.  They  lay  their  eggs  in  crevices  of  the  bark  of 
trees,  especially  near  the  roots.  The  larvae  that  hatch  from 
these  eggs  resemble  the  well-known  larvae  of  May-beetles  in 
form.  But,  unlike  the  white  grubs  which  feed  on  the  roots 
of  herbaceous  plants,  the  larvae  of  stag-beetles  bore  into  the 
solid  wood  of  the  trunks  and  roots  of  trees,  and  reduce  it  to 


COLEOPTERA. 


555 


a  substance  resembling  very  coarse  sawdust.  They  mature 
slowly  ;  it  is  said  that  the  larvae  of  some  of  the  larger  species 
require  six  years  to  complete  their  growth. 

The  family  is  a  small  one ;  only  fourteen  North  Ameri- 
can species  are  at  present  known. 

The  Common  Stag-beetle,  Lucanus  dama  (Lu-ca'nus  da'- 
ma). — The  most  common  of  our  Stag-beetles  is  this  species 
(Fig.  672).  It  flies  by  night  with  a 
loud  buzzing  sound,  and  is  often  at- 
tracted to  lights  in  houses.  The  larva 
is  a  large  whitish  grub  resembling  the 
larvae  of  the  Lamellicorn  Beetles.  It 
is  found  in  the  trunks  and  roots  of 
old,  partially  decayed  trees,  especially 
apple,  cherry,  willow,  and  oak.  The 
specimen  figured  here  is  a  male;,  in 
the  female  the  mandibles  are  shorter. 
The  Giant  Stag-beetle,  Lucanus 
elaphus  (L.  el'a-phus),  is  a  large  species 
found  in  the  South.  It  measures  from 
one  and  one-half  inches  to  two  inches 
in  length,  not  including  the  mandibles,  which  in  the  case  of 
the  male  are  more  than  half  as  long  as  the  body,  and 
branched  like  the  antlers  of  a  stag. 

The  Antelope  Beetle,  Dorcus  parallelus 
(Dor'cus  par-al-le'lus).  —  This  beetle  is 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  species  of  Lu- 
canus, and  differs  in  having  the  wing-covers 
marked  with  longitudinal  striae 
and  the  teeth  on  the  outside 
of  the  fore  tibiae  much  smaller 
(Fig.  673.) 

Several  species  of  stag-bee- 
tles that  are  much  smaller 
than  Dorcus  are  found  in  this  FIG.  674. 

country. 


Fie.  672. 


FIG.  673. 


556  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  Horned  Passalus,  Passalus  cornutus  (Pas'sa-lus  cor- 
nu'tus).  differs  greatly  in  appearance  from  our  other  stag- 
beetles  (Fig.  674).  It  is  a  large  shining,  black  beetle,  with 
a  short  horn,  bent  forwards,  on  the  top  of  the  head.  This 
beetle  and  its  larva  are  found  in  decaying  wood.  The  larva 
is  remarkable  for  possessing  only  four  well-developed  legs. 

Family  SCARAB^EID^E  (Scar-a-bae'i-dae). 

The  Scarabceids  (Scar-a-bce' ids)  or  the  Lamellicorn  (La-mel'li- 
corn)  Beetles. 

This  is  a  very  large  family,  including  beetles  that  repre- 
sent a  wide  range  of  variation  in  size,  form,  and  habits. 
They  are  mostly  short,  stout-bodied  beetles,  of  which  the 
well-known  June-bugs  or  May-beetles  represent  the  most 
familiar  type.  The  most  useful  character  for  distinguishing 
these  insects  is  the  lamellate  form  of  the  club  of  the  antennae, 
the  segments  constituting  it  being  greatly  flattened,  and 
capable  of  being  brought  close  together.  It  is  this  character 
that  suggests  the  name  lamellicorn  beetles. 

According  to  their  habits,  the  members  of  this  family  can 
be  separated  into  two  well-marked  groups — the  scavengers 
and  the  leaf-chafers. 

THE   LAMELLICORN  SCAVENGERS. 

The  lamellicorn  scavengers  in  both  the  larval  and  adult 
states  feed  upon  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter. 
Nearly  all  the  species  live  in  the  dung  of"  animals,  chiefly  that 
of  horses  and  cows.  But  the  members  of  one  genus,  Trox, 
feed  upon  decaying  animal  matter,  and.  a  few  species  feed 
upon  fungi.  The  following  are  the  most  common  represen- 
tatives of  this  division  : 

I.  The  Trimble-bugs. — These  are  the  most  familiar  of  all 
dung-beetles,  for  their  peculiar  habits  have  attracted  much  at- 
tention from  the  earliest  times.  They  are  of  rounded  form, 
and  the  wing-covers  are  shortened  so  as  to  expose  the  tip 


COLEOPTERA.  557 

of  the  abdomen.  They  are  generally  black,  but  some  are 
colored  with  rich  metallic  hues.  They  vary  greatly  in  size. 

The  name  tumble-bug  refers  to  the  habit  which  many 
species  exhibit  of  forming  round  balls  of  dung,  which  they 
roll  long  distances.  They  work  in  pairs,  a  male  and  a  female 
working  together ;  and  often  the  ball  is  several  times  as 
large  as  their  combined  size.  They  finally  bury  the  ball  in 
the  ground,  and  the  female  deposits  an  egg  in  one  side  of 
it ;  this  partially  decomposed  matter  serves  as  food  for  the 
larva  when  it  hatches.  It  should  be  noted  that  this  is  one 
of  the  instances,  rare  among  insects,  where  the  male  realizes 
that  he  has  some  responsibility  as  a  father,  and  assists  the 
female  in  providing  for  the  young. 

This  strange  habit  of  rolling  these  balls  has  occasioned 
much  speculation  as  to  its  object,  and  has  been  the  source 
of  many  superstitions,  especially  in  ancient  times.  The 
only  reasonable  theory  that  we  have  met  is  that  as  many 
predaceous  insects  frequent  the  masses  of  dung  from  which 
the  balls  are  obtained,  in 'order  to  prey  upon  the  larvae  which 
live  there,  the  more  intelligent  tumbje-bugs  remove  the  food 
for  their  larvae  to  a  safe  distance. 

The  most  noted  member  of  this  group  of  genera  is  the 
Sacred  Beetle  of  the  Egyptians,  Ateuchus  sacer  (A-teu'chus 
sa'cer).  This  insect  was  held  in  high  veneration  by  this 
ancient  people.  It  was  placed  by  them  in  the  tombs  with 
their  dead  ;  its  picture  was  painted  on  sarcophagi,  and  its 
image  was  carved  in  stone  and  precious  gems.  These  sculp- 
tured beetles  can  be  found  in  almost  any  collection  of 
Egyptian  antiquities. 

From  the  habits  and  structure  of  this  Scarabaeid  the 
Egyptians  evolved  a  remarkable  symbolism.  The  ball, 
which  the  beetles  were  supposed  to  roll  from  sunrise  to 
sunset,  represented  the  earth  ;  the  beetle  itself  personified 
the  sun,  because  of  the  sharp  projections  on  its  head,  which 
extend  out  like  rays  of  light ;  while  the  thirty  segments  of 
its  six  tarsi  represented  the  days  of  the  month.  All  indi- 


558  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

viduals  of  this  species  were  thought  to  be  males,  and  a  race 
of  males  symbolized  a  race  of  warriors.  This  latter  super- 
stition was  carried  over  to  Rome,  and  the  Roman  soldiers 
wore  images  of  the  Sacred  Beetle  set  in  rings. 

Our  common  tumble-bugs  are  distributed  among  three 
genera  :  Canthon,  Copris,  and  Phanceus.  In  the  genus  Can- 
thon  (Can'thon)  the  middle  and  posterior  tibiae  are  slender, 
and  scarcely  enlarged  at  the  extremity.  Cant/ton  Iczvis  (C. 
lae'vis)  is  our  most  common  species  (Fig.  675).  In  Copris 
(Co'pris)  and  Phanceus  (Pha-nae'us)  the  middle 
and  posterior  tibiae  are  dilated  at'  the  ex- 
tremity. In  Phanczus  the  fore  tarsi  are  want- 
ing, and  the  others  are  not  furnished  with 
claws ;  the  species  are  brilliantly  colored. 
KIG.  675."  PhancBiis  carnifex  (P.  car'ni-fex),  with  its  rough 
copper-colored  thorax  and  green  elytra,  is  one  of  our  most 
beautiful  beetles,  and  is  our  best-known  species.  It  is 
about  two  thirds  inch  in  length,  and  the  head  of  the  male  is 
furnished  with  a  prominent  horn.  In  Copris  all  the  tarsi  are 
present  and  furnished  with  claws.  Copris  Carolina  is  a  large 
well-known  species,  which  measures  more  than  one  inch  in 
length. 

II.  77/(?  Aphodian  (A-pho'di-an)  Dung-beetles. — These 
are  small  insects,  our  common  species  measuring  from  one 
sixth  to  one  third  inch  in  length.  The  body  is  oblong, 
convex,  or  cylindrical  in  form,  and,  except  in  one  small 
genus,  the  clypeus  is  expanded  so  as  to  cover  the  mouth- 
parts  entirely.  These  insects  are  very  abundant  in  pastures 
in  the  dung  of  horses  and  cattle,  and  immense  numbers  of 
them  are  often  seen  flying  through  the  air  during  warm 
autumn  afternoons.  More  than  one  hundred  North  Amer- 
ican species  have  been  described ;  of  these  seventy  belong 
to  the  genus  Aphodius  (A-pho'di-us).  One  of  the  more 
common  species  is  Aphodius  fimetarius  (A.  fim-e-ta'ri-us), 
which  is  about  one  third  inch  in  length,  and  is  easily  recog- 
nized by  its  red  wing-covers. 


COLEOPTERA.  559 

III.  The  Earth-boring  Dung-beetles. — These  beetles  are 
of  a  rounded  convex  form  (Fig.  676).     They  differ  from  all 
other    dung-beetles    in    having    the    antennae 
eleven-jointed,    and    in   the   labrum   and  man- 
dibles   being   visible    from    above.     This   is   a 

small  group,  less  than  twenty  North  American 
species  having  been  described.  The  popular 
name  is  derived  from  that  of  the  typical  genus,  F,G  6?6 
Geotrupes  (Ge-o-tru'pes),  which  signifies  earth-boring.  Those 
species  the  habits  of  which  are  known  live  in  excrement. 
The  females  bore  holes  into  the  earth  either  beneath  the 
dung  or  near  it ;  into  these  holes  they  convey  a  quantity  of 
the  dung:  this  is  to  serve  as  food  for  the  larvae,  an  egg  be- 
ing laid  in  each  hole.  This  is  an  approach  to  the  peculiar 
habits  of  the  tumble-bugs. 

IV.  The  Skin-beetles— 1\\z  members  of  this  group  are 
oblong,  convex  species,   in  which  the  surface  of. the  body 
and  wing-covers  is  usually  very  rough,  and  covered  with  a 

*  crust    of   dirt,  which    is    removed  with  great  dif- 
ficulty.     They    are    small    or  of    medium    size  ; 
our    most    common    species    measure    from    one 
third  to  one  half  inch  in  length.     The  abdomen  is 
FIG.  677.     covered  by  the  elytra ;  the  feet  are  hardly  fitted 
for  digging,  but  the  femora  of  the  front  legs  are  greatly  di- 
lated.    Our  species  all  belong  to  the  genus  Trox  (Fig.  677). 
They  feed  upon  dried,  decomposing  animal  matter ;  many 
species  are  found  about  the  refuse  of  tanneries,  and  upon 
the  hoofs  and  hair  of  decaying  animals. 

THE    LAMELLICORN    LEAF-CHAFERS. 

The  leaf-chafers  are  herbivorous  insects  which  in  the 
adult  state  usually  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  trees,  but  many 
of  the  species  devour  the  pollen  and  petals  of  flowers.  In 
the  larval  state  some  of  these  insects  are  found  in  rotten 
wood ;  others  live  in  the  ground,  where  they  feed  upon 
the  roots  of  grass  and  other  plants.  These  larvae  are  thick, 


560  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

fleshy  grubs,  with  well-developed  legs  (Fig.  678).  The 
caudal  segments  of  the  abdomen  are  very 
large,  and  appear  black  on  account  of  the 
large  amount  of  dirt  in  the  intestine.  The 
body  is  strongly  curved,  so  that  the  larvae 
can  crawl  only  with  great  difficulty ;  when 
in  the  ground  they  usually  lie  on  their 

FIG.  678. 

backs. 

The  following  groups  include  the  more  important  repre- 
sentatives of  this  division  : — 

I.  The  May-beetles  or  June-bugs. —  During  the  warm 
evenings  of  May  and  June  we  throw  open  our  windows  so 
that  we  may  feel  the  refreshing  coolness  of  the  night  air 
and  the  inspiration  of  the  new  summer.  Suddenly,  as  we 
sit  working  or  reading,  our  peace  is  disturbed  by  a  buzzing 
object  which  whirls  above  us.  Then  comes  a  sharp  thud 
and  silence.  A  little  later  the  scratching  of  six  pairs  of 
tiny  claws  tells  us  the  whereabouts  of  the  intruder.  But  so 
familiar  are  we  with  his  kind  that  we  need  not  look  to  know 
how  he  appears,  the  mahogany-brown  blunderer,  with 
yellowish  wings  sticking  out  untidily  from  under  his 
polished  wing-covers. 

Although  these  insects  are  beetles,  and  attract  our  atten- 
tion each  year  in  May,  they  have  received  the  infelicitous 
title  of  June-bugs.  They  are  more  properly  termed  May- 
beetles. 

The  May-beetles  belong  to  the  genus  LacJmosterna 
(Lach-no-ster'na),  of  which  we  have  more 
than  sixty  species.  The  adults  frequently  do 
much  injury  by  eating  the  foliage  of  trees. 
In  the  case  of  large  trees  this  injury  usually 
passes  unnoticed  ;  but  small  trees  are  often 
completely  defoliated  by  them.  When  trouble- 
some, they  can  be  easily  gathered  by  shaking 
them  from  trees  upon  sheets.  Figure  679 
represents  a  common  species. 


COLEOPTERA.  $6 1 

The  larvae  of  the  different  species  of  May-beetles  are 
commonly  classed  together  under  the  name  "  white  grubs." 
They  are  often  great  pests  in  meadows  and  in  cultivated 
fields.  We  have  known  large  strawberry  plantations  to  be 
destroyed  by  them,  and  have  seen  large  patches  of  ground 
in  pastures  from  which  the  dead  sod  could  be  rolled  as  one 
would  roll  a  carpet  from  a  floor,  the  roots  having  been  all 
destroyed  and  the  ground  just  beneath  the  surface  finely 
pulverized  by  these  larvae.  No  satisfactory  method  of 
fighting  this  pest  has  been  discovered  as  yet.  If  swine  be 
turned  into  fields  infested  by  white  grubs  they  will  root 
them  up  and  feed  upon  them.  We  have  destroyed  great 
numbers  of  the  beetles  by  the  use  of  trap-lanterns,  but 
many  beneficial  insects  were  destroyed  at  the  same  time. 

II.  The  Rose-bugs. — The  common  rose-bug,  Macrodaclylus 
subspinosus  (Mac-ro-dac'ty-lus  sub-spi-no'sus),  is  a  well-known 
pest.     It  is  a  slender  beetle,  tapering  before  and  behind,  and 

measuring  three  eighths  inch  in  length  (Fig.  680). 
It  is  thickly  clothed  with  fine,  yellow,  scale-like 

//^|jriv  hairs,  which  give  it  a  yellow  color;  the  legs  are 
!/  \  long,  slender,  and  of  a  pale-red  color.  These  beetles 

FIG  680.  appear  in  early  summer,  and  often  do  great  injury 
to  roses  and  other  flowers,  and  to  the  foliage  of  various 
fruit-trees  and  shrubs.  This  is  a  very  difficult  pest  to  con- 
trol. The  best  method  now  known  is  to  use  Paris-green 
when  safe  to  do  so  ;  in  other  cases  the  beetles  should  be 
collected  by  jarring  them  into  a  large  funnel  which  is  fitted 
into  a  can.  The  larvae  of  rose-bugs  feed  on  the  roots  of 
plants. 

III.  The  SJiining  Leaf-cJiafers. — These  insects  resemble 
the    May-beetles    in    form,  but  can   be   distinguished    from 
them  by  the  position  of  the  hinder  pair  of  spiracles,  which 
are  visible  on  the  sides  below  the  edges  of  the  wing-covers; 
and    they  differ  from    the   other  leaf-chafers   in  which  the 
spiracles  are  in  this  position  in  that  the  tarsal   claws  are  of 
unequal  size,  one  claw  of  each  pair  being  larger  than  the  other. 


562  THE -STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

These  beetles  are  usually  polished,  and  many  of  them  are  of 
brilliant  colors.  To  this  family  belong  the  most  beautiful 
beetles  known,  many  appearing  as  if  made  of  burnished 
gold  or  silver,  or  other  metal. 

The  Goldsmith-beetle,  Cotalpa  lanigera  (Co-tal'pa  la- 
nig'e-ra). — This  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  species.  It 
measures  a  little  less  than  one  inch  in  length,  and  is  a  broad 
oval  in  shape.  It  is  of  a  lemon-yellow  color  above,  glittering 
like  burnished  gold  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  thorax ;  the 
under  side  of  the  body  is  copper-colored  and  thickly  covered 
with  whitish  wool. 

The  Spotted  Pelidnota,  Pelidnota  punctata  (Pel-id-no'ta 
punc-ta'ta). — This  beetle  is  reddish  brown 
above,  with  three  black  spots  on  each  wing- 
cover  and  one  on  each  side  of  the  prothorax 
(Fig.  68 1).  The  scutellum,  base  of  the  head, 
and  the  entire  body  beneath  are  of  a  deep 
bronzed-green  color.  The  adult  is  commonly 
found  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  grape.  The 
larva  feeds  upon  decaying  roots  and  stumps  of 
681'  various  trees. 

The  Light-loving  Anomala,  Anomala  lucicola  (A-nom'a-la 
lu-cic'o-la). — This  also  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  grape.  It 
resembles  the  preceding  species  in  form,  but  is  much  smaller, 
measuring  onlyabout  one  third  inch  in  length.  It  is  of  a  pale 
dull  yellow  color;  the  prothorax  is  black,  margined  with 
dull  yellow,  and  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  and  the  ventral 
side  of  the  body  are  also  black ;  sometimes  the  abdomen  is 
brown.  As  this  beetle  appears  early  in  the  summer,  it  can 
be  safely  destroyed  with  Paris-green,  for  the  subsequent 
rains  will  wash  the  poison  from  the  vines  before  the  fruit 
ripens. 

IV.  The  Rhinoceros-beetles.— The  name  rhinoceros-beetles 
was  suggested  for  this  group  by  the  fact  that  in  many  species 
the  male  bears  a  horn  on  the  middle  of  the  head.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  horn  there  may  be  one  or  more  horns  on  the 


COLEOPTERA.  563 

thorax.  These  beetles  are  of  medium  or  large  size ;  in 
fact,  the  largest  beetles  known  belong  to  this  group.  As 
with  the  flower-beetles,  the  claws  of  the  tarsi  are  of 
equal  size,  but  the  fore  coxae  are  transverse,  and  not  promi- 
nent. 

One  of  the  largest  of  our  rhinoceros-beetles  is  Dynastes 
tityrus  (Dy-nas'tes  tit'y-rus).  This  is  of  a  greenish-gray, 
color,  with  scattered  black  spots  on  the  wing-covers,  or,  if 
only  recently  transformed,  of  a  uniform  dark  brown.  The 


FIG.  682. 

male  (Fig.  682)  bears  a  prominent  horn  on  the  top  of  his 
head,  and  a  large  one  and  two  small  ones  on  his  prothorax. 
The  female  has  only  a  tubercle  on  the  head.  This  insect  is 
found  in  the  Southern  States ;  the  larva  lives  in  rotten 
wood.  In  the  far  West  there  is  a  closely  allied  species, 
Dynastes  grantii  (D.  gran'ti-i),  in  which  the  large  horn  on 
the  thorax  is  twice  as  long  as  in  D.  tityrus.  In  the  West 
Indies  there  occurs  a  species,  Dynastes  hercules  (D.  her'cu-les), 
which  measures  six  inches  in  length. 

Several  other  genera  occur  in  this  country,  in  some  of 
which  the  males  have  prominent  horns ;  in  others  the  horns 
are  represented-by  tubercles,  or  are  wanting.  The  following 
species  represents  the  latter  type. 

The  Sugar-cane  Beetle,  Ligyrus  rugiceps  (Lig'y-rus 
ru'gi-ceps). — This  beetle  is  a  serious  pest  in  the  cane-fields 
of  Louisiana,  and  it  sometimes  injures  corn.  Figure  683 
represents  the  adult,  and  its  method  of  attacking  a 
plant. 


564 


THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


V.  The  Flower-beetles. — The  flower-beetles  are  so  called 
because  many  of  them  are  often  seen  feeding  upon  pollen 
and  flying  from  flower  to  flower.  These  beetles  are  some- 
what flattened,  or  nearly  level  on  the  back ;  the  claws 


FIG.  683.-The  Sugar-cane  Beetle. 

of  the  tarsi  are  of  equal  size,  and  the  fore  coxae  are  coni- 
cal and  prominent.  Nearly  sixty  species  occur  in  this 
country. 


CO  LEO  P  TERA .  $65 

The  Hermit  Flower-beetle,  Osmoderma  eremicola  (Os-mo- 
der'ma  er-e-mic'o-la). — This  is  one  of  the 
larger  of  our  Flower-beetles  (Fig.  684).  It 
is  of  a  deep  mahogany-brown  color,  nearly 
smooth,  and  highly  polished.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  larva  lives  on  decaying 
wood  in  forest-trees. 

The  Rough  Flower-beetle,  Osmoderma 
scabra  (O.  sca'bra),  is  closely  allied  to  the 
preceding.     It  is  not  quite  as  large,  meas- 
uring  about  one    inch   in    length.      It   is 
purplish  black,  and  the  wing-covers  are 
roughened  with    irregular,   coarsely-punc- 
tured striae.      It  is  nocturnal,  concealing  FIG.  684. 
itself  during  the  day  in  the  crevices  and  hollows  of  trees. 
The  larva  lives  in  the  decaying  wood  of  apple  and  cherry, 
consuming  the  wood  and  inducing  more  rapid  decay. 

The  Bumble  Flower-beetle,  Euphoria  inda  (Eu-pho'ri-a 
in'da). — The  most  common  of  our  Flower-beetles,  at  least  in 
the  North,  is  a  yellowish-brown  one,  with  the 
wing-covers  sprinkled  all  over  with  small,  irregular 
black  spots  (Fig.  685).  It  is  one  of  the  first  in- 
sects  to  appear  in  the  spring.  It  flies  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground  with  a  loud  humming 
sound,  like  that  of  a  bumble-bee,  for  which  it  is 
often  mistaken.  During  the  summer  months  it  is 
FIG.  685.  not  seen  .  but  a  new  brood  appears  about  the 
middle  of  September.  The  adult  is  a  general  feeder  occur- 
ring upon  flowers,  eating  the  pollen  ;  upon  corn-stalks  and 
green  corn  in  the  milk,  sucking  the  juices  ;  and  upon  peaches, 
grapes,  and  apples.  Occasionally  the  ravages  are  very 
serious. 

The  genus  Euphoria  represents  well  the  form  of  the 
more  typical  Flower-beetles,  which  are  distinguished  by  the 
margin  of  each  wing-cover  having  a  large  wavy  indentation 
near  its  base,  which  renders  the  side  pieces  of  the  meso- 


566  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

thorax  visible  from  above.  This  indentation  makes  it  un- 
necessary for  these  insects  to  raise  or  expand  their  wing- 
covers  when  flying,  as  most  beetles  do,  as  they  are  able  to 
pass  the  wings  out  from  the  sides. 

The  Sad  Flower-beetle,  Euphoria  melancholica  (Eu-pho'- 
ri-a  mel-an-chori-ca).— This  is  a  much  smaller  species  than 
the  Bumble  Flower-beetle,  measuring  hardly  half  an  inch  in 
length.  It  is  almost  black,  with  irregular  transverse  white 
lines  on  the  wing-covers.  We  have  received  several  reports 
of  its  producing  injuries  similar  to  those  of  E.  inda. 

The  Fig-eater,  Allorhina  nitida  (Al-lo-rhi'na  nif.'i-da). — 
This  species  extends  over  the  Atlantic  slope,  and  is  very 
common  in  the  South.  It  is  a  green,  velvety  insect,  measur- 
ing from  two  thirds  of  an  inch  to  one  inch  in  length.  It  is 
somewhat  pointed  in  front,  and  usually  has  the  sides  of  the 
thorax  and  elytra  brownish  yellow.  These  beetles  often  fly 
in  great  numbers  at  night,  making  a  loud  buzzing  noise  similar 
to  that  of  the  May-beetles.  In  fact,  in  the  South  the  term 
June-bug  is  often  applied  to  this  insect.  The  larvae  feed 
upon  the  roots  of  grass  and  other  plants.  Sometimes  they 
leave  the  ground  and  crawl  from  one  place  to  another. 
When  they  do  so  they,  strangely  enough,  crawl  upon  their 
backs,  making  no  use  of  their  short  legs.  On  one  occasion 
we  saw  them  crawling  over  the  pavements  on  the  Capitol 
grounds  at  Washington  in  such  numbers  that  bushels  of 
them  were  swept  up  and  carted  away. 

The  family  SPONDYLID.E  (Spon-dyl'i-dae),  or  aberrant 
long-horned  beetles,  includes  only  four  North  American 


FIG.  686.  FIG.  687. 


COLEOPTERA.  567 

species.  These  live  under  the  bark  of  pine-trees.  They 
are  closely  allied  to  the  Cerambycidae,  but  differ  in  the  form 
of  the  tarsi  and  in  the  structure  of  the  antennae.  The 
fourth  segment  of  the  tarsus,  although  much  reduced  in 
size,  is  distinctly  visible ;  the  first  three  segments  are  but 
slightly  dilated,  and  the  third  is  either  bilobed  or  not  (Fig. 
686).  The  segments  of  the  antennae  have  deep  impressions, 
in  which  are  situated  the  organs  of  special  sense  (Fig.  687). 
The  most  common  species  is  Parandra  brunnea  (Pa-ran'dra 
brun'ne-a)  (Fig.  688) ;  this  insect  is  of  a  mahogany-brown 
color. 

^  Family  CERAMBYCIDAE  (Cer-am-byc'i-dae). 
The  Long-horned  Beetles  or  Cerambycids  (Ce-ram'by-cids}. 

This  is  a  very  large  family,  there  being  about  six  hun- 
dred described  species  in  North  America  alone.  As  a  rule 
the  beetles  are  of  medium  or  large  size,  and  graceful  in 
form  ;  many  species  are  beautiful  in  color.  The 
body  is  oblong,  often  cylindrical.  The  antennae  are 
long,  often  longer  than  the  whole  body ;  but  except 
in  one  genus,  Prionus,  they  are  only  eleven-jointed, 
as  with  most  beetles.  The  legs  are  also  long,  and 
the  tarsi  are  apparently  four-jointed,  the  fourth 
segment  being  very  small  and  hidden  ;  the  third 
segment  of  the  tarsi  is  strongly  bilobed  (Fig.  689). 

They  are  strong  fliers  and  swift  runners;  but  many  of 
them  have  the  habit  of  remaining  motionless  on  the  limbs 
of  trees  for  long  intervals,  and  when  in  this  apparent  trance 
they  suffer  themselves  to  be  picked  up.  But,  when 
once  caught,  many  species  make  an  indignant  squeak- 
ing by  rubbing  the  prothorax  and  mesothorax  to- 
gether. 

The    larvae   are    borers,    living  within    the   solid 
parts  of  trees  or  shrubs,  or  beneath  bark.     They  are 
white  or  yellowish  grubs.     The  body  is  soft,  and 
°'  tapers   slightly  from    head    to    tail  (Fig.  690) ;   the 
jaws  are  powerful,  enabling  these  insects  to  bore  into  the 


568  THE   STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 

hardest  wood.  The  larval  state  usually  lasts  two  or  three 
years.  The  pupa  state  is  passed  within  the  burrow  made 
by  the  larva  ;  frequently  a  chamber  is  made  by  partitioning 
off  a  section  of  the  burrow  with  a  plug  of  chips ;  but  some- 
times the  larva  builds  a  ring  of  chips  around  itself  just 
beneath  the  bark  before  changing  to  a  pupa.  The  pupal 
state  is  comparatively  short,  lasting  only  a  few  days  or  weeks. 
This  family  comprises  three  subfamilies,  which  are  sep- 
arated by  Le  Conte  and  Horn  as  follows : — 

A.  Sides  of  the  prothorax  with  a  sharp  margin,     p.  568. 

PRIONINJE. 

AA.  Prothorax  not  margined. 
B.   Front  tibiae  not  grooved;  palpi  never  acute  at  tip.     p.  569. 

CERAMBYCINJE. 

BB.  Front  tibiae  obliquely  grooved  on  the  inner  side ;  palpi  with 
the  last  segment  cylindrical  and  pointed,     p.  572 LAMIIN^E. 

Subfamily  PRICKING  (Pri-o-ni'nae). 
The  Prionids  (Pri-o'nids\ 

The  larger  of  the  Long-horned  Beetles  constitute  this 
subfamily.  They  are  distinguished  from  other  Cerambycids 
by  having  the  sides  of  the  prothorax  prolonged  outwards 
into  a  thin  margin,  which  is  more 
or  less  toothed.  The  wing-covers 
are  usually  leathery  in  appearance, 
and  of  a  brownish  or  black  color. 
The  following  are  our  best-known 
species : — 

The  Broad-necked  Prionus,  Pri- 
onus  lalicollis  (Pri-o'nus  lat-i-col'- 
lis). — This  is  the  largest  of  our 
common  species  ;  but  the  individ- 
uals vary  from  less  than  one  inch 
FlG'  6<?I-  to  two  inches  in  length.  It  is  of  a 

pitchy-black  color,  and  of  the  form  shown  in   Figure  691. 
The  antennae  are  twelve-jointed  in  both  sexes.     The  larva 


COLEOPTERA.  $69 

is  a  large  fleshy  grub,  and  infests  the  roots  of  grape,  apple, 
poplar,  and  other  trees. 

The  Tile-horned  Prionus,  Prionus  imbricornis  (P.  im- 
bri-cor'nis),  is  very  similar  to  the  preceding  species,  but  can 
be  distinguished  at  a  glance  by  the  form  of  the  antennae. 
In  the  antennae  of  the  male  the  number  of  the  segments 
varies  from  eighteen  to  twenty,  while  in  the  female  the 
number  varies  from  sixteen  to  seventeen.  The  popular 
name  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  segments  of  the  antennae  of 
the  male  overlap  one  another  like  the  tiles  on  a  roof.  The 
larva  infests  the  roots  of  grape  and  pear,  and  also  feeds 
upon  the  roots  of  herbaceous  plants. 

The  Straight-bodied  Prionid,  Orthosoma  brunneum  (Or- 
tho-so'ma  brun'ne-um),  is  also  a  common  species.  The  body 
is  long,  narrow,  and  somewhat  flattened  ;  it  measures  one 
inch  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  and  is  of  a  light- 
brown  color.  The  prothorax  is  short,  and  is  armed  on  each 
side  with  three  sharp  spines.  The  sides  of  the  wing-covers 
are  very  nearly  parallel ;  this  suggests  the  common  name. 
The  adult  flies  by  night,  and  is  often  attracted  to  lights  ;  the 
larva  is  supposed  to  infest  pine. 

Subfamily  CERAMBYCIN.E  (Ce-ram-by-ci'nae). 
The  Typical  Cerambycids  (Ce-ram'by-cids^ 

In  this  subfamily  the  prothorax  is  rounded  on  the  sides, 
the  the  tibiae  of  the  fore  legs  are  not  grooved,  and  the  palpi 
are  never  acute  at  tip.  There  are  nearly  four  hundred 
American  species,  representing  more  than  one 
hundred  genera.  The  few  species  mentioned 
below  are  those  that  the  beginning  student  is 
most  likely  to  meet. 

The  Ribbed   Pine-borer,  Rhagium  line  at  um 
(Rha'gi-um  lin-e-a'tum). — This  is  a  gray  beetle 
mottled  with  black,  and  has  a  narrow  thorax,         FIG.  692. 
with  a  spine  on  each  side  (Fig.  692).     It  received  its  name 
because  of  the  three  ridges  extending  lengthwise  on  each 


570 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


wing-cover.  Its  larva  bores  in  the  wood  of  pine-trees.  On 
one  occasion  the  writer  found  many  of  them  in  a  pine-tree 
eight  inches  in  diameter,  which  they  had  bored  through  and 
through.  When  the  larva  is  full  grown  it  makes  a  hole 
nearly  through  the  thick  bark  of  the  tree,  so  that  it  may 
easily  push  its  way  out  after  its  transformations ;  it  then 
retreats  a  short  distance,  and  makes  a  little  ring  of  chips 
around  itself,  between  the  bark  and  the  wood,  and  changes 
to  a  pupa  within  this  rude  cocoon.  The  adult  beetle  remains 
in  this  pupal  cell  through  the  winter. 

The  Cloaked  Knotty-horn,  Desmocerus  palliatus  (Des- 
moc'e-rus  pal-li-a'tus). — This  beautiful  insect  is  of  a  dark- 
blue  color,  with  greenish  reflections. 
The  basal  part  of  the  wing-covers  is 
orange-yellow,  giving  the  insect  the 
appearance  of  having  a  yellow  cape 
thrown  over  its  shoulders  (Fig.  693). 
The  segments  in  the  middle  of  the 
antennae  are  thickened  at  the  outer 
end,  so  that  they  look  like  a  series 
FlG-693-  of  knots.  The  adult  is  found  quite 

common  in  June  and  July  on  elder,  in  the  pith  of  which  the 
larva  bores. 

The  Beautiful  Maple-borer,  Plaginotus  speciosus  (Plag-i- 
no'tus  spe-ci-o'sus). — This  is  a  very  handsome  insect,  marked 
with  black  and  yellow,  as  indicated  in  Fig- 
ure 694.  It  lays  its  eggs  in  midsummer 
on  the  trunks  of  sugar-maples,  in  the  wood 
of  which  the  larvae  bore.  If  an  infested 
tree  be  examined  in  the  spring  the  pres- 
ence of  these  borers  can  be  detected  by 
the  dust  that  falls  from  the  burrows.  The 
larvae  can  be  destroyed  at  this  time  by  the 
use  of  a  knife  and  a  stiff  wire. 

The  Locust-borer,  Cyllene  robince  (Cyl- 
le'ne  ro-bin'i-ae). — To  the  enthusiastic  en-  FIG.  694. 


COLEOPTERA.  57* 

tomologist  the  goldenrod  is  a  rich  mine,  yielding  to  the 
collector  more  treasures  than  any  other  flower.  It  gives 
up  its  gold-dust  pollen  to  every  insect-seeker ;  and  because 
of  this  generous  attitude  to  all-comers  it  is  truly  emblematic 
of  the  country  that  has  chosen  it  as  its  national  flower. 

Among  the  insects  that  revel  in  this  golden  mine  in  the 
autumn  is  a  black  beetle  with  numerous  transverse  or  wavy 
yellow  bands  (Fig.  695).  This  beetle  is  also 
found  on  locust-trees,  where  it  lays  its  eggs. 
The  larvre  bore  under  the  bark  and  into  the 
hard  wood  ;  they  attain  their  growth  in  a  little 
less  than  a  year.  The  locust-trees  have  been 
completely  destroyed  in  some  localities  by  the 
depredations  of  these  larvae. 

The  Painted  Hickory-borer,  Cyllene  pictus  Fio  g 
(C.  pic'tus). — This  beetle  resembles  the  preced- 
ing so  closely  that  the  same  figure  will  represent  either. 
But  the  Hickory-borer  not  only  infests  a  different  kind  of 
tree,  but  appears  in  the  spring  instead  of  the  autumn.  In 
this  species  the  second  segment  of  the  hind  tarsus  is  densely 
pubescent  beneath,  while  it  is  glabrous  in  the  Locust-borer. 

The  Oak-pruner,  Elaphidion  villosum  (El-a-phid'i-on  vil- 
lo'sum). — The  work  of  this  insect  is  much  more  likely  to 
attract  attention  than  the  insect  itself.  Frequently,  in  the 
autumn,  the  ground  beneath  oak-trees,  and  sometimes 
beneath  apple-trees  also,  is  strewn  with  small  branches  that 
have  been  neatly  severed  from  the  trees  as  if  with  a  saw. 
These  branches  are  sometimes  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  have  been  cut  off  by  the  larva  of  a  beetle,  which  on  ac- 
count of  this  habit  is  called  the  Oak-pruner.  The  beetle  lays 
each  of  its  eggs  in  a  small  twig.  The  larva  eats  out  the  in- 
side of  this  twig,  and  works  down  into  a  larger  branch,  fol- 
lowing the  centre  of  it  towards  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  When 
full  grown  the  larva  enlarges  the  burrow  suddenly  so  as 
nearly  to  sever  the  branch  from  the  tree,  leaving  only  the 
bark  and  a  few  fibres  of  wood.  It  then  retreats  up  its  bur- 


572 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


row  a  short  distance,  and  builds  a  plug  of  chips  below  it. 
The  autumn  winds  break  the  branch  from  the  tree.  The 
larva  remains  in  its  burrow  through  the  winter,  and  under- 
goes its  transformations  in  the  spring.  No  one  has  ex- 
plained its  object  in  severing  the  branch.  The  adult  is  a 
plain,  brownish-gray  beetle.  Whenever  it  becomes  abun- 
dant its  increase  can  be  checked  by  gathering  the  fallen 
branches  in  the  autumn  and  burning  them  before  the  beetles 
have  escaped. 

Subfamily  LAMIIN/E  (Lam-i-i'nae). 
The  Lamiids  (Lam'i-ids}. 

As  in  the  preceding  subfamily,  the  prothorax  is  rounded 
with  these  beetles ;  but  the  Lamiids  are  distinguished  by 
having  the  fore  tibiae  obliquely  grooved  on  the  inner  side, 
and  the  last  segment  of  the  palpi  cylindrical  and  pointed. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  more  important  species: — 

The  Sawyer,  Monohammus  confusor  (Mon-o-ham'mus 
con-fu'sor). — This  beautiful  brown  and  gray  beetle  is  about 
an  inch  and  a  quarter  long,  with  antennas  as  long  as  the 
body  in  the  case  of  the  female  and  twice  as  long  in 
the  case  of  the  male  (Fig.  696).  The  larva  bores  in 

the  sound  wood  of 
pine  and  of  fir,  mak- 
ing a  hole,  when 
full  grown,  one  half 
inch  in  diameter. 
The  pupa  state  is 
passed  within  the 
burrow.  It  some- 
times occurs  in  such 
numbers  as  to  kill 
the  infested  trees. 

The    'Round- 
FIG.  696.  headed     Apple-tree 


COLEOPTERA.  573 

Borer,  Saperda  Candida  (Sa-per'da  can'di-da). — Excepting  the 
Codlin-moth,  which  infests  the  fruit,  this  is  the  worst  enemy 
of  the  apple  that  we  have.  Its  common  name  is  used  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  Flat-headed  Apple-tree  Borer,  already 
described,  the  larva  of  this  species  being  nearly  cylindrical 
in  form  (Fig.  690).  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  bark  at  the 
base  of  the  tree  late  in  June  or  July.  The  larva  at  first 
bores  in  the  soft  sap-wood,  making  a  disk-shaped  mine  ;  after 
this  it  works  in  an  upward  direction  in  the  harder  wood,  and 
at  the  close  of  its  larval  existence  comes  to  the  surface 
several  inches  above  the  place  it  entered.  It  requires 
nearly  three  years  for  this  larva  to  attain  its  growth ;  it 
changes  to  a  pupa,  near  the  upper  end  of  its  burrow,  about 
the  middle  of  May,  and  emerges  as  a  beetle  in  June.  The 
beetle  (Fig.  697)  is  of  a  pale-brown  color  above,  with  two 


TTT 


FIG.  697.  FIG.  698.  FIG.  699. 

broad,  white  stripes  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  body. 
Although  the  larva  is  found  chiefly  in  apple,  it  infests  many 
other  trees. 

The  Two-spotted  Oberea,  Oberea  biinaculata  (O-ber'e-a  bi- 
mac-u-la'ta),  is  sometimes  a  serious  pest,  boring  in  the  canes 
of  blackberry  and  raspberry.  The  larva  resembles  that  of 
the  preceding  species.  The  adult  (Fig.  698)  is  about  one 
half  inch  in  length  and  of  a  deep-black  color,  except  the 
prothorax,  which  is  yellow.  There  are  usually  two  or  three 
black  spots  on  the  pronotum,  but  frequently  these  are 
wanting. 


574  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  Red  Milkweed-beetles,  Tetraopes  (Tet-ra-o'pes).— 
There  are  several  species  of  bright-red  beetles  that  are  com- 
mon on  milkweeds  (Asclepias).  These  belong  to  the  genus 
Tetraopes.  Our  most  common  species  (Fig.  699)  is  T.  tetra- 
oplitiialmus  (T.  tet-ra-oph-thal'mus).  In  this  species  there 
are  four  black  spots  on  each  wing-cover,  and  the  antennae 
are  black,  and  not  ringed  with  a  lighter  color.  The  larva 
bores  in  the  roots  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  stems  of  milk- 
weeds. 

'Family  CHRYSOMELID.E  (Chrys-o-meri-dae). 
The  Leaf -beetles  or  Chry  some  lids  (CJirys-o-me'lids). 

The  Leaf-beetles  are  so  called  because  they  feed  upon 
the  leaves  of  plants  both  as  larvae  and  adults.  They  are 
usually  short-bodied,  and  more  or  less  oval  in  outline  ;  the 
antennae  are  usually  of  moderate  length  ;  and  the  front  is 
not  prolonged  into  a  beak.  The  legs  are  usually  short,  and 
are  furnished  with  tarsi  of  the  same  type  as  those  of  the 
preceding  family  (see  Fig.  689,  p.  567). 

Although  we  are  unable  to  cite  any  characteristic  that 
will  invariably  distinguish  these  beetles  from  the  preceding 
family,  the  student  will  rarely  have  any  difficulty  in  making 
the  distinction.  The  beetles  of  the  genus  Donacia,  described 
below,  are  the  only  common  ones  that  are  liable  to  be  mis- 
placed. In  other  cases  the  more  or  less  oval  form  of  the 
body,  the  comparatively  short  antennas,  and  the  leaf-feeding 
habits  will  serve  to  distinguish  the  Chrysomelids. 

The  Leaf-beetles  are  nearly  all  comparatively  small, 
the  Colorado  Potato-beetle  being  one  of  our  larger  spe- 
cies. 

The  eggs  are  usually  elongated  and  yellowish,  and  are 
laid  upon  the  leaves  or  stems  of  the  plants  upon  which  the 
larvae  feed.  Many  of  the  larvae  live  exposed  on  the  leaves 
of  plants  ;  others  that  live  in  similar  situations  cover  them- 
selves with  their  excrement ;  some  are  leaf-miners  ;  and  a 


UUlll       ct 

I 


COLEOPTERA.  575 

few,  as  the  Striped  Squash-beetle,  bore  in  the  roots  or  stems 
of  plants. 

This  is  a  large  family,  of  which  about  six  hundred 
North  American  species  are  known.  The  following  il- 
lustrations will  serve  to  show  the  variations  in  form  and 
habits  : 

The  Long-horned  Leaf-beetles,  Donacia  (Do-na'ci-a). — 
These  are  the  common  Leaf-beetles  that  are  liable  to  be 
mistaken  for  Cerambycids.  They  are  of  elongated  form, 
with  slender  antennae  (Fig.  700).  They  measure  from  a 
quarter  to  a  half  inch  in  length,  and  are  of  a  me- 
tallic color — either  greenish,  bronze,  or  purplish. 
The  lower  side  of  the  body  is  paler,  and  is  clothed 
with  very  fine  hair  which  serves  as  a  water-proof 
coat  when  the  insect  is  submerged.  The  larvae  FIG. 
feed  upon  the  roots  or  in  the  stems  of  aquatic  plants  ;  and 
the  adults  are  found  on  the  leaves  of  the  same  plants.  We 
have  many  species,  but  they  resemble  each  other  so  closely 
that  it  is  difficult  to  separate  them. 

The  Three-lined  Lema,  Lema  trilineata  (Le'ma  tri-lin-e- 
a'ta). — This  insect  is  common,  feeding  on  the  leaves  of 
potato.  The  beetle  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  yellow, 
with  three  black  stripes  on  the  wing-covers.  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  small  clusters  on  the  leaves.  The  larvae  feed  on  the 
leaves,  and  can  be  easily  recognized  by  a  habit  they  have 
of  covering  their  backs  with  their  own  excrement.  They 
transform  in  the  ground  in  earthen  cells.  There  are  two 
broods  each  year  ;  the  second  hibernates  in  the  ground  as 
pupre. 

The  Asparagus-beetle,  Crioceris  asparagi  (Cri-oc'e-ris  as- 
par'a-gi)  — This  is  a  small,  red,  yellow,  and  black  beetle,  that 
gnaws  holes  into  the  heads  of  young  asparagus,  and  lays  oval, 
black  eggs  upon  them.  The  larvae,  which  are  small,  brown, 
slug-like  grubs,  also  feed  upon  the  young  heads  in  the 
spring,  and  later  in  the  season  a  second  brood  feed  upon 
the  full-grown  plant.  Figure  701  represents  a  head  of  as- 


576 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


paragus  bearing  the  eggs  of  this  beetle,  also  a  beetle  and  a 
larva  enlarged.  The  beetle  measures  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  length.  Where  this  pest  occurs 
care  should  be  taken  to  destroy  all  wild 
asparagus.  This  will  force  the  beetles  to 
lay  their  eggs  upon  the  shoots  that  are 
cut  for  market.  The  larvae  hatching 
from  such  eggs  will  not  have  a  chance 
to  mature. 

The  Colorado  Potato-beetle,  Do- 
ryphora  decemlineata  (Do-ryph'o-ra  dec- 
em-lin-e-a'ta). — A  good  many  insect 
tramps  have  come  to  us  from  Europe 
and  from  Australia,  and  appropriated 
whatever  pleased  them  of  our  grow- 
ing crops  or  stored  grain.  But  two  of 
Fic-  701  our  worst  insect  pests  have  swarmed 

out  on  us  in  hordes  from  their  strongholds  in  the 
region  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  These  are  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Locust  and  the  Colorado  Potato-beetle 
(Fig.  702).  The  latter  insect  dwelt  near  the  base 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  feeding  upon  the  sand- 
burr  (Solatium  rostratum],  until  about  the  year 
1859.  At  this  time  it  began  to  be  a  pest  in  the  FlG-  ?02- 
potato-fields  of  the  settlers  in  that  region.  Having  acquired 
the  habit  of  feeding  upon  the  cultivated  potato,  it  began  its 
eastward  march  across  the  continent,  spreading  from  potato 
patch  to  potato  patch.  At  first  the  migration  took  place  at 
about  the  rate  of  fifty  miles  a  year,  but  later  it  was  more 
rapid ;  and  in  1874  the  insect  reached  the  Atlantic 
coast. 

The    Three  -  spotted     Doryphora,    DorypJiora 
clivicollis   (D.    cliv-i-col'lis). — This    resembles    the 
F'G.  703     Colorado   potato-beetle    in  size  and    form.     It  is 
of  a   deep-blue  color,   except    the  wing-covers,  which    are 
orange,  with   three    dark-blue    spots    on    each   (Fig.    703). 


COLEOPTERA.  577 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  size  and  shape  of 
these  spots ;  frequently  the  two  near  the  base  of  the  wing- 
covers  are  joined  so  as  to  make  a  continuous  band  extend- 
ing across  both  wing-covers.  The  larva  feeds  on  milkweed 
(Asclepias). 

The  Diabroticas. — Several  very  important  pests  belong 
to  the  genus  Diabrotica  (Di-a-brot'i-ca).  In  the  East  they 
are  known  as  cucumber-beetles  ;  but  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
where  they  are  more  feared  on  account  of  their  injuries  to 
fruit  and  fruit-trees,  they  are  commonly  called  the  Dia- 
broticas. They  are  chiefly  greenish-yellow  beetles,  marked 
with  black  stripes  or  spots.  The  Striped  Diabrotica,  D. 
vittata  (D.  vit-ta'ta),  has  two  black  stripes  on  each  wing- 
cover.  The  adult  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  cucumber,  squash, 
and  melon ;  and  the  larva,  which  is  a  slender,  worm-like 
creature,  bores  in  the  stems  and  roots  of  the  same  plants. 
The  Twelve-spotted  Diabrotica,  D.  duodecimpunctata  (D. 
du-od-e-cim-punc-ta'ta),  and  Diabrotica  soror  (D.  so'ror), 
agree  in  having  six  black  spots  on  each  wing-cover  (Plate  I, 
Fig.  2).  The  former  is  very  common  in  the  East;  the 
latter  occurs  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  is  the  most  destructive 
of  all  of  the  Diabroticas.  Diabrotica  longicornis  (D.  lon-gi- 
cor'nis)  is  a  grass-green  species,  which  feeds  on  the  pollen 
and  silk  of  corn  and  on  the  pollen  of  other  plants.  Its 
larva  is  known  as  the  corn  root-worm  ;  it  is  very  destructive 
to  corn  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Its  injuries  are  greatest 
where  corn  is  grown  on  the  same  land  year  after  year ; 
hence  a  rotation  of  crops  should  be  practised  where  this  pest 
is  troublesome.  The  other  species  of  Diabrotica  mentioned 
above  are  difficult  to  combat,  as  the  leaves  of  cucumber, 
melon,  and  squash  are  very  apt  to  be  injured  by  the  use  of 
arsenical  poisons.  The  most  practicable  way  of  protecting 
these  vines  is  to  cover  them  while  young  with  frames  cov- 
ered with  netting.  Where  they  infest  fruit-trees  they  can 
be  fought  with  Paris-green  ;  but  this  poison  must  be  used 
with  great  care  on  such  trees  as  prune  and  apricot.  Squashes 


578  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

should  not  be  grown  in  orchards,  as  is  sometimes  done  in 
California. 

The  Flea-beetles. — There  is  a  group  of  leaf-beetles,  of 
which  we  have  many  species,  in  which  the  hind  legs  are 
fitted  for  leaping,  the  thighs  being  very  large.  These  are 
commonly  called  the  flea-beetles. 

The  Striped  Flea-beetle,  Pkyllotreta  vittata  (Phyl-lo-tre'ta 
.  *  vit-ta'ta),  is  exceedingly  common  on  cabbage, 

Y^f/  turnip,  radish,  mustard,  and  allied  plants.  It  is 
./•BJ[\  a  small,  black,  shining  beetle,  with  a  broad,  wavy, 

JHjjl  s  pale,  dull-yellow  stripe  upon  each  wing-cover 
J^W'C.  (Fig.  704) ;  it  measures  about  one  tenth  of  an 

FIG.  704.  inch  in  length.  These  beetles  eat  numerous  little 
pits  in  the  thicker  leaves  that  they  infest,  and  minute 
perforations  in  the  thinner-leaved  plants.  The  larva  is  a 
slender,  white  worm,  about  one  third  inch  in  length  ;  it  feeds 
on  the  roots  of  the  plants  infested  by  the  adult.  The  adult 
beetles  can  be  destroyed  with  kerosene  emulsion. 

The  Cucumber  Flea-beetle,  Crepidodera  cucumeris  (Crep-i- 
dod'e-ra  cu-cum'e-ris),  is  a  common  pest  of  melon  and 
cucumber  vines ;  it  also  attacks  the  leaves  of  potato,  rasp- 
berry, turnip,  cabbage,  and  other  plants.  This  is  a  minute 
black  species,  measuring  less  than  one  twelfth  of  an  inch  in 
length.  The  body  is  finely  punctured,  and  clothed  with  a 
whitish  pubescence  ;  there  is  a  deep  transverse  furrow  across 
the  hinder  part  of  the  prothorax ;  the  antennae  are  dull 
yellow,  and  the  legs  are  of  the  same  hue,  except  the  posterior 
femora,  which  are  brown.  The  adult  beetles  feed  on  the  leaves 
of  plants  in  the  same  manner  as  the  preceding  species ;  but 
the  larva  is  a  miner,  feeding  within  the  substance  of  the 
leaves  of  the  infested  plants. 

The  Steel-blue  Flea-beetle,  Haltica  chalybea  (Hal'ti-ca 
cha-lyb'e-a). — This  is  a  larger  species  than  the  two  preced- 
ing, measuring  from  one  sixth  to  one  fifth  inch  in  length, 
and  is  of  a  dark  steel-blue  color.  It  is  a  great  pest  in 
vineyards,  eating  into  the  buds  of  grape  in  early  spring, 


COLEOPTERA. 


579 


and   later   gnawing  holes    into    the    leaves   (Figs.   705    and 

706).  In  May  and  June  the 
brown,  sluggish  larvae  may 
also  be  found  feeding  upon 
the  upper  surface  of  the 
leaves.  The  full-grown  larva 
is  chestnut -brown,  marked 
with  black  spots.  The  beetles 
can  be  destroyed  in  early 
spring  by  jarring  them  from 
the  vines  onto  a  sheet  wet 
with  kerosene  ;  use  for  this 
purpose  a  piece  of  sheeting 
several  yards  long,  with  a 
stick  fastened  to  each  end  so  that  it 
can  be  easily  moved  from  vine  to 
vine. 

The  Wedge-shaped  Leaf -beetles. — 
These  insects  are  characterized  by  the 
peculiar  form  of  the  body,  which  is 
narrow  in  front  and  broad  behind.  In 


»5-  FIG.  706. 

most  of  the  species  the  body  is  much  roughened  by  deep  pits ; 
and  usually  the  pits  on  the  wing  covers  are  in  regular  rows. 
These  insects  and  the  tortoise-beetles  differ  from  other  leaf- 
beetles  in  having  the  fore  part  of  the  head  prominent,  so  that 
the  mouth  is  confined  to  the  under  surface.  Some  of  the  larvae 


580  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

feed  externally  upon  leaves  and  bear  a  parasol  composed  of 

their  excrement ;    other  species  are  leaf-miners.     Odontota 

rubra  (Od-on-to'ta  ru'bra)  is  a  good   repre- 

^  V/  f  sentative  of  this  group  (Fig.  707).     It  varies 

Ji&  in  length  from  one  eighth  to  one  fifth  of  an 

^  m   m\    ^     inch.      It    is    of    a    reddish    color,  with    the 

/^^HHB^      wmX. 
•^^BraV.  xfH"  elevated  portions  of  the  elytra  more  or  less 

**&£&&  spotted  with  black.     The  larva   mines  in  the 

FIG.  707-          leaves  of  apple,  forming  a  blotch-mine;  the 

transformations  are  undergone  within  the  mine.     We  have 

also  found  this   species  mining   the  leaves  of  bass'wood   in 

great  numbers. 

The  Tortoise-beetles. — Among  the  more  beautiful  Coleop- 
tera  are  certain  bright,  golden,  green,  or  iridescent  beetles 
found  on  the  leaves  of  sweet-potato,  morning-glory,  nettle, 
and  other  plants.  In  these  beetles  the  body  is  flattened 
below  and  convex  above  ;  the  head  is  nearly  or  quite  con- 
cealed beneath  the  prothorax ;  and  the  margins  of  the 
prothorax  and  elytra  are  broadly  expanded,  forming  an 
approximately  circular  or  oval  outline,  and  suggesting  a 
resemblance  to  the  shell  of  a  tortoise.  Not  all  of  the 
species  are  iridescent ;  and  in  the  case  of  those  that  are, 
the  brightness  of  the  colors  are  said  to  depend  on  the 
emotions  of  the  insect.  What  a  beautiful  way  to  express 
one's  feelings — to  be  able  to  glow  like  melted  gold  when  one 
is  happy !  Unfortunately  for  the  beauty  of  our  collections, 
these  bright  colors  disappear  after  the  death  of  the  insect. 

The  larvae  of  the  tortoise-beetles  are  flattened,  and  have 
the  margin  of  the  body  fringed  with  spines.  At  the  caudal 
end  of  the  body  there  is  a  forked  appendage  which  serves 
a  very  strange  purpose.  This  fork  is  bent  forward  over  the 
back,  and  to  it  are  attached  the  cast-off  skins  of  the  larva  and 
its  excrement ;  these  constitute  a  parasol.  When  about  to 
change  to  the  pupa  state  these  larvae  fasten  the  caudal  end  of 
the  body  to  the  under  side  of  a  leaf ;  the  skin  then  splits  open, 
and  is  forced  back  to  this  end  of  the  body,  where  it  remains. 


COLEOPTEKA.  58 1 

The  One-dotted  or  Five-dotted  Tortoise,  PJiysonota  uni- 
punctata  (Phys-o-no'ta  u-ni-punc-ta'ta). — The  largest  of  our 
bright-colored  tortoise-beetles  is  common  in  midsummer, 
feeding  on  the  leaves  of  wild  sunflower.  It  measures  from 
three  eighths  to  one  half  inch  in  length,  and  is  yellow,  with 
the  margins  whitish.  On  the  prothorax  there  are  five  black 
dots — two  close  together  in  front,  and  three  more  widely 
separated  behind.  Sometimes  all  but  one  of  these  dots  are 
wanting.  It  was  this  form  that  was  first  described,  hence 
the  name  unipunctata.  We  have  found  the  larvae  abundant 
in  July  on  the  same  plant  with  the  adults. 

Most  of  our  species  of  tortoise-beetles  are  of  moderate 
size,  measuring  about  one  fourth  inch  or  even 
less  in  length.     These  represent  two  genera, 
Cassida  (Cas'si-da)  and  Coptocycla  (Cop-toc'y- 
cla).     These  genera  can  be  separated  by  the 
length  of  the  antennas,  which  extend  beyond         FIG.  7<>8. 
the  base  of  the  prothorax  in  the  latter  (Fig.  708),  but  do  not 
in  the  former. 

The  Argus-tortoise,  Clielymorpha  argus  (Chel-y-mor'pha 
ar'gus),  is  a  large  brick-red  species,  which  measures  from 
three  eighths  to  seven  sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and 
has  the  prothorax  and  wing-covers  marked  with  many  black 
spots.  This  species  feeds  on  milkweed  (Asclepias). 

Family  BRUCHID.E  (Bru'chi-dae). 
The  Pea-weevil  Family . 

These  are  small  beetles,  the  larvae  of  which  live  in  the 
seeds  of  leguminous  plants.  The  head  of  the 
adult  is  prolonged  into  a  broad  beak  ;  and  the 
wing-covers  are  rather  short,  so  that  the  tip  of 
the  abdomen  is  always  exposed  (Fig.  709). 

The  Pea-weevil,  BrucJius  pisi  (Bru'chus  pi'si). — 
FIG.  709.       "  Buggy-peas  "  are  well   known   in  most  sections 
of  our  country  ;  but  just  how  the  "  bugs  "  find  their  way  into 


582  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

the  peas  is  not  so  generally  understood.  The  eggs  of  the 
Pea-weevil  are  laid  upon  the  pod  while  the  peas  are  quite 
small ;  when  the  larvae  hatch  they  bore  through  the  pod 
into  the  young  peas.  Here  they  feed  upon  the  substance 
of  the  seed,  which  ripens,  however,  and  in  some  cases  will 
germinate  when  planted.  The  larva  before  transforming 
eats  a  circular  hole  on  one  side  of  the  seed,  leaving  only  a 
thin  scale,  which  is  easily  pushed  away  by  the  mature  beetle. 
The  adult  is  about  one  fifth  inch  in  length  ;  it  is  dark  brown, 
with  a  few  white  spots  on  the  wing-covers,  and  one  on  the 
prothorax  near  the  middle.  Sometimes  the  beetles  leave 
the  peas  during  the  autumn  or  winter ;  but  as  a  rule  they 
remain  in  the  seed  till  spring,  and  are  often  planted  with  it. 
Seed  peas  should  be  placed  in  water,  and  the  infested  ones, 
which  will  float,  should  be  picked  out  and  destroyed.  This 
species  is  not  known  to  oviposit  on  dry  peas. 

This  and  other  grain-infesting  insects  can  be  destroyed 
by  placing  the  grain  into  a  close  receptacle  with  a  small 
quantity  of  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

The  Bean-weevil,  Bruclms  obtectus  (B.  ob-tec'tus). — This 
species  resembles  the  preceding  quite  closely ;  but  it  is  a 
little  smaller  (Fig.  709),  and  lacks  the  white  markings  char- 
acteristic of  B.  pisi.  It  infests  beans,  and  often  several  indi- 
viduals inhabit  a  single  bean.  The  eggs  are  laid  within  the 
pod,  being  pushed  through  a  slit  which  the  female  gnaws 
through  the  pod.  This  species  will  oviposit  on  dry  beans, 
peas,  and  other  grain,  and  will  continue  to  breed  for  many 
generations  in  stored  beans  and  peas. 


Family  TENEBRIONID.E  (Te-neb-ri-on'i-dae). 

The  Darkling  Beetles. 

The  darkling  beetles  are  nearly  all  of  a  uniform  black 
color,  although  some  are  gray,  and  a  few  are  marked  with 
bright  colors.  The  different  species  vary  greatly  in  size  and 


COLEOPTERA.  $83 

in  the  form  of  the  body.  As  with  the  blister-beetles,  the 
hind  tarsi  are  four-jointed,  and  the  fore  and  middle  tarsi 
are  five-jointed  ;  but  unlike  the  members  of  that  family,  the 
body  and  wing-covers  are  firm,  and  the  head  is  narrower 
than  the  prothorax. 

These  insects  occur  chiefly  in  dry  and  warm  regions. 
Thus  while  we  have  comparatively  few  species  in  the  North- 
eastern United  States,  there  are  many  in  the  Southwest. 
Most  of  the  species  feed  on  dry  vegetable  matter,  and  often 
on  that  which  is  partially  decomposed ;  some  live  in  dung, 
some  in  dead  animal  matter,  others  in  fungi,  and  a  few 
prey  upon  larvae.  More  than  four  hundred  species  occur  in 
this  country.  The  three  following  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  variations  in  form  and  habits :  — 

The  Meal-worm,  Tenebrio  molitor  (Te-neb'ri-o  mori-tor). 
— This  is  a  well-known  pest  in  granaries  and  mills.  The 
larva  is  a  hard,  waxy-yellow,  cylindrical  worm,  which  meas- 
ures when  full  grown  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  and 
closely  resembles  a  wire-worm  ;  it  feeds  on  flour  and 
meal.  The  beetle  is  black,  and  about  five  eighths 
of  an  inch  in  length  (Fig.  710). 

The  Forked  Fungus-beetle,  Boletotherus  bifur- 
cus  (Bol-et-o-the'rus  bi-fur'cus),  is  common  in  the  ] 
Northeastern  United  States  and  in  Canada  about  the  large 
toadstools  (Polyporns)  which  grow  on  the  sides  of  trees. 
The  surface  of  the  body  and  wing-covers  is  very  rough,  and 
the  prothorax  bears  two  prominent  horns  (Fig. 

f7ii).     The  larva  lives  within   the  fungi  referred 
to  above. 
The  Pinacate-bugs  (Pin-ah-cah'te-bugs). — Sev- 
eral species  of  Eleodes  (El-e-o'des)  are  abundant 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  they  are  found  under 
IG  7"'      stones  and  pieces  of  wood  lying  on  the  ground. 
They  are  apt  to  congregate  in  large  numbers  under  a  single 
shelter,  and  are  clumsy  in  their  movements.     They  defend 
themselves  when  disturbed  by  elevating  the  hinder  part  of 


i  meas- 

I 


584  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

the  body  and  discharging  an  oily  fluid  from  it.  They  present 
an  absurd  appearance,  walking  off  clumsily, 
and  carrying  the  hind  end  of  the  body  as  high 
as  possible.  The  most  common  species  are 
large,  smooth,  club-shaped  beetles  (Fig.  712), 
and  are  commonly  known  as  Pinacate-bugs. 
These  beetles  and  those  belonging  to  several 
closely  allied  genera  are  wingless. 

The  family  yEGIALITID^:  (^E-gi-a-lit'i-dae) 
was  founded  upon  a  single  species  from  Alaska; 
recently  another  has  been  found  in  California. 

FIG.  712. 

The  family  ClSTELlD^E  (Cis-tel'i-dae)  in- 
cludes about  fifty  North  American  species,  some  of  which 
are  quite  common.  These  are  brownish  beetles,  without 
spots,  which  are  found  on  leaves  and  flowers  and  under  bark. 
The  body  is  usually  elongate,  elliptical,  and  quite  convex. 
They  are  most  easily  distinguished  from  allied  families  by 
the  tarsal  claws  being  pectinate,  and  the  anterior  coxal  cavities 
closed  behind.  The  larvae  of  some  of  our  species  at  least  live 
in  rotten  wood  and  resemble  wire-worms  in  appearance. 

The  family  OTHNIID^;  (Oth-ni'i-dae)  is  represented  in  our 
territory  by  four  species  of  Othnius  (Oth'ni-us),  one  from 
the  East  and  three  from  the  far  West.  They  are  small 
beetles,  which  are  found  running  actively  on  the  leaves  of 
trees,  and  are  probably  predaceous.  In  this  family  the  an- 
terior coxal  cavities  are  closed  behind,  and  none  of  the  ab- 
dominal segments  are  grown  together  on  the  ventral  side. 

The  family  LAGRIID^E  (La-gri'i-dae)  includes  only  five 
North  American  species,  all  of  which  are  from  the  East,  and 
are  found  under  bark  and  on  leaves.  They  are  elongate 
beetles,  with  a  narrow,  subcylindrical  prothorax,  and 
a  more  or  less  brassy  color.  Our  most  common  spe- 
cies is  Arthromacra  cenca  (Ar-thro-ma'cra  ae'ne-a). 
This  species  is  nearly  half  an  inch  in  length  (Fig.  713). 


The  family  MONOMMID.E  (Mo-nom'mi-dae)  is 


rep- 


FIG.  713. 


resented  in  this  country  by  a  single  genus,  including  four 


CGLEOPTERA.  585 

species.  They  are  small,  black,  oval,  heteromerous  beetles, 
in  which  the  anterior  coxal  cavities  are  open  behind ;  and 
in  which  the  antennae  are  received  in  grooves  on  the  under 
side  of  the  prothorax. 

The  family  MELANDRYID.E  (Mel-an-dry'i-dae)  includes 
about  sixty  North  American  species.  These  are  found  under 
bark  and  in  fungi.  They  are  usually  of  elongate  form,  al- 
though some,  like  the  one  figured  here,  are  not  so.  The 
maxillary  palpi  are  frequently  very  long  and  much  dilated  ; 
and  the  first  segment  of  the  hind  tarsi  is  always 
much  elongated.  Among  our  more  common 
species  are  two  belonging  to  the  genus  PcntJie 
(Pen'the).  These  are  rather  large,  oval,  de- 
pressed beetles,  upwards  of  half  an  inch  in 
length,  and  of  a  deep  black  color.  Pentlie  obli-  FIG.  7i4. 
quata  (P.  ob-li-qua'ta)  is  distinguished  by  having  the  scutel- 
lum  clothed  with  rust-red  hairs  (Fig.  714).  Pentjie  pi melia 
(P.  pi  meFi-a)  closely  resembles  this  species,  except  that  the 
scutellum  is  black. 

The  family  PYTHID^E  (Pyth'i-dae)  includes  less  than  a 
score  of  North  American  species.  Some  of  these  live  under 
bark;  others  are  found  under  stones.  They  are  heteromer- 
ous beetles,  in  which  the  anterior  coxal  cavities  are  open 
behind,  the  head  is  not  strongly  and  suddenly  constricted  at 
base,  and  the  prothorax  is  not  margined  at  the  sides. 

The  family  CEDEMERID.<E  (CEd-e-mer'i-dae)  is  composed 
of  heteromerous  beetles  of  moderate  size,  with  elongate, 
narrow  bodies.  The  head  and  prothorax  are  somewhat  nar- 
rower than  the  wing-covers ;  the  antennae  are  long,  nearly 
filiform,  sometimes  serrate  ;  the  anterior  coxal  cavities  are 
open  behind,  and  the  middle  coxae  are  very  prominent. 
Less  than  fifty  North  American  species  have  been  de- 
scribed. They  are  generally  found  on  plants,  but  some  live 
on  the  ground  near  water. 

The  family  CEPHALOID.-E  (Ceph-a-lo'i-dae)  includes  only 
a  single  genus,  which  is  represented  in  this  country  by  but 


586  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

three  species.  These  are  heteromerous  beetles,  which  can 
be  easily  recognized  by  the  characters  given  in  the  table  of 
families. 

The  family  MORDELLID^E  (Mor-derii-dae)  includes  a  large 
number  of  small  beetles,  which  are  easily  recognized  by 
their  peculiar  form  (Fig.  715).  The  body  is  arched, 
the  head  being  bent  down  ;  and  the  abdomen  is 
FIG.  7iS.  usually  prolonged  into  a  slender  point.  Our  most 
common  species  are  black ;  but  many  are  variegated,  and 
all  are  pubescent.  The  adults  are  usually  found  on  flowers  ; 
the  larvae  live  in  rotten  wood  and  in  the  pith  of 'various 
plants,  upon  which  they  are  supposed  to  feed. 

The  family  ANTHICID^:  (An-thic'i-dae)  includes  beetles  of 
moderate  or  minute  size.  The  head  is  strongly  constricted 
behind  the  eyes,  and  the  neck  is  slender ;  the  prothorax  is 
narrower  than  the  wing-covers  at  base.  Many  of  the  beetles 
live  on  flowers  and  leaves ;  but  some  are  found  near  the 
margin  of  water.  Our  most  common  species  belong  to  the 
genus  Notoxus  (No-tox'us),  in  which  the  prothorax  is  pro- 
longed over  the  head  into  a  horn. 

The  family  PYROCHROIU^E  (Pyr-o-chro'i-dae)  includes  a 
small   number   of   beetles,  which    are    from    one 
third  to  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  length.     The 
body  is  elongate;   the  head  and    prothorax  are 
narrower  than  the  wing-covers ;  the  antennae  are 
serrate  or  subpectinate  in  the  females  and  usually 
flabellate  in  the  males  (Fig.  716).      The  beetles      F.G.  7,e. 
are  found  about  decaying  trees,  beneath  the  bark  of  which 
the  larvae  live. 

Family  MELOID.E  (Me-lo'i-dae). 

The  Blister-beetles. 

The  blister-beetles  are  of  medium  or  large  size.  The 
body  is  comparatively  soft ;  the  head  is  broad,  vertical,  and 
abruptly  narrowed  into  a  neck  ;  the  prothorax  is  narrower 


11 W4  V»Vt  W^       Ci 

V^y 


COLEOPTERA.  587 

than  the  wing-covers,  which  are  soft  and  flexible ;  the  legs 
are  long  and  slender;  the  hind  tarsi  are  four-jointed,  and 
the  fore  and  middle  tarsi  are  five-jointed. 

These  beetles  are  found  on  foliage  and  on  flowers,  on 
which  they  feed  in  the  adult  state ;  some  of  the  species  are 
very  common  on  goldenrod  in  the  autumn ;  and  several 
species  feed  on  the  leaves  of  potato. 

The  blister-beetles  are  so  called  because  they  are  used 
for  making  blister-plasters.  The  beetles  are  killed,  dried, 
and  pulverized,  and  the  powder  thus  obtained  is  made  into 
a  paste,  which  when  applied  to  the  skin  produces  a  blister. 
The  species  most  commonly  used  is  a  European  one.  com- 
monly known  as  the  Spanish-fly ;  but  our  American  species 
possess  the  same  blistering  property. 

The  transformations  of  blister-beetles  are  remarkable ; 
not  only  do  these  insects  undergo  wonderful  changes  in 
form,  but  the  number  of  these  changes  is  greater  than  is 
usual  with  insects.  On  this  account  their  mode  of  develop- 
ment is  termed  hypermetamorphosis. 

The  beetles  lay  their  eggs  in  the  ground.  The  newly- 
hatched  larva  is  active,  running  about  in  search  of  its  food, 
which  consists,  in  some  species,  of  the  eggs  of  locusts,  in 
others  of  the  egg  and  honey  of  some  solitary  bee. 

In  the  case  of  those  species  that  live  in  the  nests  of  bees 
the  larva  finds  its  home  in  a  curious  way.  Instead  of  hunt- 
ing for  a  nest  it  merely  climbs  a  plant,  and  remains  near  a 
flower  till  it  has  a  chance  to  seize  hold  of  a  bee  visiting  the 
flower.  The  larva  clings  to  the  bee  until  she  goes  to  her 
nest,  then,  letting  go  of  the  bee,  it  remains  in  the  cell  and  is 
shut  up  there  with  the  egg  of  the  bee  and  the  store  of  food 
which  she  provides  for  her  young.  The  beetle  larva  then 
devours  the  egg;  after  which  it  moults  and  undergoes  a 
change  of  form,  becoming  a  clumsy  creature,  which  feeds 
upon  the  honey.  Several  other  changes  in  form  occur  be- 
fore the  beetle  reaches  the  adult  stage. 

The  wonderful   instinct    by  which    the   larvae  of   these 


588  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

blister-beetles  find  their  way  to  the  nests  of  solitary  bees 
has  not  yet  reached  perfection  ;  for  many  of  the  larvae  at- 
tach themselves  to  flies,  wasps,  honey-bees,  and  other  flower- 
visiting  insects,  and  merely  gain  useless  transportation 
thereby. 

Nearly  two  hundred  species  of  blister-beetles  have  been 
found  in  this  country.  The  majority  of  our  common  species 
belong  to  the  genera  named  below. 

Meloe. — The  beetles  of  this  genus  present  an  exception 
to  the  characters  of  the  Coleoptera,  in  that  the  wing-covers, 
instead  of  meeting  in  a  straight  line  down  the 
middle  of  the  back,  overlap  at  the  base  (Fig. 
717).  These  wing-covers  are  short,  and  the 
wings  are  lacking.  These  beetles  are  called 
oil-beetles  in  England,  on  account  of  the  yel- 
lowish liquid  which  oozes  from  their  joints  in 
FIG.  717.  large  drops  when  they  are  handled.  Our 
most  common  species  is  the  Buttercup  Oil-beetle,  Meloe 
angusticollis  (Mel'o-e  an-gus-ti-col'lis).  It  may  be  found  in 
meadows  and  pastures  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  various 
species  of  buttercups. 

Nemognatlia. — The  species  of  the  genus  NcmognatJia 
(Ne-mog'na-tha)  are  remarkable  for  having  the  maxillae 
developed  into  a  long  sucking-tube,  which  is  sometimes  as 
long  as  the  body,  and  which  resembles  somewhat  the  suck- 
ing-tube of  a  butterfly.  A  similar  modification  of  the 
maxillae  occurs  in  the  genus  Gnathium  (Gnath'i-um),  which 
differs  from  Nemognatha  in  having  a  slight  thickening  of  the 
outer  segments  of  the  antennae.  The  species  of  these  two 
genera  occur  chiefly  in  the  South  and  West. 

Our  most  common  species  of  blister-beetles  in  the  East 
belong  to  the  genus  Epicauta  (Ep-i-cau'ta).  These  insects 
feed  in  the  adult  state  upon  the  leaves  of  potato,  and  up6n 
the  pollen  of  goldenrod  ;  the  larvae,  so  far  as  is  known,  are 
parasitic  in  the  egg-cases  of  locusts.  The  Pennsylvania 
Blister-beetle,  Epicauta  pennsylvanica,  (E.  penn-syl-van'i-ca), 


COLEOPTERA.  589 

is  of  a  uniform  black  color  (Fig.  718).  Epicauta  cinerea  (E. 
ci-ne're-a)  is  sometimes  clothed  throughout  with 
an  ash-colored  pubescence,  and  sometimes  the 
wing-covers  are  black,  except  a  narrow  gray 
margin  ;  the  two  varieties  were  formerly  consid- 
ered distinct  species:  the  first  is  commonly  known 
as  the  ash-colored  Blister-beetle,  the  last  as  the 
Margined  Blister-beetle.  Another  common  spe-  FlG- 
cies  is  the  Striped  Blister-beetle,  Epicauta  vittata  (E.  vit-ta'- 
ta) ;  this  species  is  yellowish  or  reddish  above,  with  the  head 
and  prothorax  marked  with  black,  and  with  two  black 
stripes  on  each  wing-cover. 

In  the  far  West  very  many  species  of  blister-beetles 
occur — so  many,  in  fact,  that  we  cannot  undertake  to  specify 
them  here. 

The  family  RHIPIPHORID^E  (Rhip-i-phor'i-dae)  includes 
a  small  number  of  beetles,  which  are  very  remarkable  in 
structure  and  habits.  The  wing-covers  are  usually  shorter 
than  the  abdomen,  and  narrowed  behind  (Fig.  719);  sometimes 
they  are  very  small,  and  in  one  exotic  genus  they 
are  wanting  in  the  female,  which  lacks  the  wings  also, 
and  resembles  a  larva  in  form.  The  antennas  are 
FIG.  719.  pectinate  or  flabellate  in  the  males,  and  frequently 
serrate  in  the  females.  The  adult  insects  are  found  on 
flowers.  The  larvae  that  are  known  are  parasites,  some  in 
the  nests  of  wasps,  and  some  on  cockroaches. 

The  family  STYLOPID^E  (Sty-lop'i-dae)  includes  a  small 
number  of  minute  insects  which  differ  so  much  from  ordi- 
nary beetles  that  they  have  been  classed  by  some  writers  as 
a  distinct  order,  the  Strepsiptcra  (Strep-sip'te-ra).  In  the 
males  the  elytra  are  reduced  to  slender,  leathery,  club-shaped 
appendages ;  while  the  wings  are  very  large,  fan-shaped,  and 
furnished  with  a  few  diverging  veins.  The  females  have 
neither  wings  nor  elytra,  and  resemble  a  larva  in  form. 
They  are  always  contained  in  the  pupa  case  in  the  body  of 
a  wasp  or  bee,  which  they  infest  parasitically.  The  point 


590  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

of  attack  of  these  parasites  is  between  two  abdominal 
segments  of  the  host.  The  presence  of  one  of  these  para- 
sites is  indicated  by  an  irregularity  in  the  outline  of  the 
abdomen  of  the  infested  wasp  or  bee ;  and,  too,  the  heads 
of  the  pupa  cases  of  the  parasites  can  be  seen  project- 
ing from  the  suture.  "  The  head  of  the  pupa  case  of  the 
male  is  convex,  that  of  the  female  is  flat ;  specimens  con- 
taining male  pupae  can  be  kept  confined  with  proper 
food  until  the  parasite  is  hatched."  (Le  Conte  and  Horn.) 
Two  genera  occur  in  this  country,  Stylops  (Sty'lops), 
which  infests  bees  of  the  genus  Andrena  (An-dre'na),  and 
Xenos  (Xe'nos),  which  infest  wasps  of  the  genus  Polistes  (Po- 
lis'tes).  Certain 'foreign  genera  infest  ants,  cockroaches,  and 
homopterous  insects. 

Suborder  RllYNCHOPHORA  (Rhyn-choph'o-ra). 

The  Snout-beetles. 

This  suborder  includes  the  insects  commonly  called 
snout-beetles,  of  which  ten  families  are  represented  in  North 
America.  With  these  insects  the  head  is  more  or  less 
prolonged  into  a  beak,  which  is  sometimes  longer  than  the  re- 
mainder of  the  body.  The  most  distinctive  characteristics  of 
this  suborder  are  the  absence  of  the  gula,  there  being  only 
a  single  gular  suture  (Fig.  720,  £-.$•),  and  the  fact  that  the 
epimera  of  the  prothorax  meet  on  the  middle 
line  behind  the  prosternum  (Fig.  720). 

A  monograph  of  the  North  American 
species  of  this  suborder  by  Le  Conte  and  Horn 
is  published  by  the  American  Philosophical  So- 
ciety, Philadelphia. 

The  family  RHINOMACERID.E  (Rhin-o-ma- 
FIG.  720.  cer'i-dae)  includes  a  small  number  of  Snout- 
beetles  in  which  the  elytra  have  no  fold  on  the  lower  sur- 
face near  the  outer  edge,  but  in  which  the  labrum  is  distinct. 
The  head  is  prominent,  not  deflexed ;  the  snout  is  as  long  as 
the  prothorax,  rather  flat,  narrowest  about  the  middle,  wider 


COLEOPTERA.  591 

at  base  and  tip  ;  the  elytra  are  rounded  at  the  tip  and  en- 
tirely cover  the  abdomen.  These  beetles  infest  the  stami- 
nate  flowers  of  coniferous  trees,  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid. 

The  family  RHYNCHITID.E  (Rhyn-chit'i-dae)  includes 
Snout-beetles  in  which  the  elytral  fold  is  very  feeble,  the  la- 
brum  is  wanting,  and  in  which  the  mandibles  are  toothed 
both  on  the  outer  and  inner  side.  The  mandibles  can  be 
spread  widely,  and  when  closed  the  outer  tooth  at  the  end 
of  each  projects  forward  so  that  two  small  acute  teeth  seem 
to  project  from  the  mouth. 

The  most  common  member  of  this  family  is  RhyncJiites 
bicolor  (Rhyn-chi'tes  bi'co-lor)  (Fig.  721).     This  is  red  above, 
except  the  snout,  and  black  below  ;  the  body,  not  in- 
cluding the  snout,  is  about  one  fourth  inch  long, 
the  snout  is  half  that  length.     The  adults  are  often    p,G.  '72I. 
abundant  on  wild  roses. 

The  family  ATTELABID^:  (At-te-lab'i-dae),  or  Leaf-rolling 
Weevils,  is  composed  of  beetles  that  have  neither  an  elytral 
fold  nor  a  labrum,  and  in  which  the  mandibles  are  flat, 
pincer-shaped,  and  toothed  on  the  inner  side.  The  elytra  do 
not  entirely  cover  the  abdomen,  and  each  is  separately 
rounded  at  the  tip.  Only  five  species  are  known  from  this 
country,  four  from  the  Atlantic  States,  and  one  from  New 
Mexico;  all  belong  to  the  genus  Attelabus  (At-tel'a-bus). 
The  females  provide  for  their  young  in  a  very  remarkable 
way.  They  make  compact  thimble-shaped  rolls  from  the 

t  leaves  of  trees  (Fig.  722)  and  lay  a  single  egg  in  each. 
The  larvae  feed  on  the  inner  parts  of  these  rolls,  and 
when    full   grown    enter   the    ground    to    transform. 
Sometimes  these  rolls  are  found  hanging  by  a  narrow 
FIG.  722.  piece  to  the  leaf    from  which  they  were  made,  and 
sometimes  they  are   found   lying   on  the  ground  separated 
from  the  leaf. 

The  family  BYRSOPID^E  (Byr-sop'i-dae)  is  represented  in 
North  America  by  a  single  species,  Thccestermts  humeralis 


592  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS, 

(Thec-e-ster'nus  hu-mer-a'lis),  of  the  central  portion  of  the 
United  States.  It  usually  lives  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  but  has  been  found  attacking  grape-vines  and  hick- 
ory. It  is  a  grayish  beetle,  one  third  to  one  half  inch  in 
length,  and  with  its  wing-covers  roughened  by  rows  of  tu- 
bercles. Its  distinctive  structural  characters  are  given  in 
the  table  of  families. 

Family  OTIORHYNCHID^E  (O-ti-o-rhyn'chi-dae). 
The  Scarred  Snout-beetles. 

This  is  one  of  the  larger  of  the  families  of  snout-beetles, 
including  more  than  one  hundred  North  American  species. 
The  most  distinctive  characteristic  of  these  insects  is  the 
presence  in  the  pupa  state,  and  sometimes  also  in  recently 
matured  adults,  of  an  appendage  on  each  mandible,  and  in 
the  adult  state  of  a  scar  indicating  the  place  from  which  the 
appendage  has  fallen.  This  scar  is  on  the  anterior  face  of 
the  mandible,  and  frequently  at  the  tip  of  a  slight  process. 
Many  species  of  this  family  are  beautifully  ornamented  with 
scales  which  resemble  in  a  striking  manner  the  scales  on 
the  wings  of  butterflies.  Among  the  more  important  species 
are  the  following  : 

Fuller's  Rose-beetle,  Aramigus  fulleri  (A-ram'i-gus  ful'le- 
ri). — This  is  an  oval,  black  snout-beetle,  lightly  covered  with 
dark-brown  scales,  and  about  one  fourth  inch  in 
length.  It  is  very  destructive  to  roses  ;  the 
larvae  feed  upon  the  roots,  and  the  adults  de- 
stroy  the  leaves,  flowers,  and  buds.  In  Cali- 
fornia  it  is  sometimes  a  pest  in  orange-groves. 

The  Imbricated  Snout-beetle,  Epiccsrus  im- 
bricatns  (Ep-i-cae'rus  im-bri-ca'tus)  is  usually  a 
FIG.  7*3.  dull,  silvery-white  beetle  with  brown  markings  ; 
but  the  species  is  quite  variable  in  color.  It  is  represented 
somewhat  enlarged  by  Figure  723.  It  is  omnivorous,  gnaw- 
ing holes  in  various  garden  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  in  the 
bark  of  trees  and  shrubs. 


COLEOPTERA.  593 

Family  CURCULIONID/E  (Cur-cu-li-on'i-dae). 
The  Curculios  (Cur-cn  li-os)  or  Weevils. 

The  Curculionidae  is  the  most  important  of  the  families 
of  snout-beetles ;  it  includes  more  than  one  half  of  all  the 
Rhynchophora  found  in  this  country,  and  some  of  the  most 
destructive  insect  pests.  In  this  family  there  is  on  the 
lower  side  of  each  wing-cover  a  strong  fold  near  the  outer 
margin,  which  limits  a  deep  groove  in  which  the  upper  edge 
of  the  abdomen  fits;  the  mandibles  have  no  scar;  the 
antennae  are  usually  elbowed,  and  have  a  ringed  or  solid 
club  ;  the  tarsi  are  usually  dilated,  with  the  third  segment 
bilobed  and  spongy  beneath  ;  in  a  few  cases  the  tarsi  are 
narrow,  but  not  spinose  beneath. 

The  larvae  are  soft,  white,  maggot-like  grubs  destitute  of 
feet.  They  feed  chiefly  on  fruits,  seeds,  and  nuts  ;  but  all 
parts  of  plants  are  subject  to  their  attacks. 

In  laying  her  eggs,  the  female  first  bores  a  hole  with  her 
snout,  then  drops  an  egg  into  this  hole,  and  finally  pushes 
the  egg  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole  with  her 
snout.     In  many  species  the  snout  is  highly 
developed  for  this  purpose  ;  sometimes  it  is 
twice  as  long  as  the  remainder  of  the  body. 
This  is  well  shown  in  the  acorn-weevils  and 
the   nut-weevils,  which  belong  to  the  genus 
Balaninus  (Ba-lan'i-nus).     Figure  724  repre- 
sents Balaninus  qucrcus  (B.  quer'cus)  resting  FlG-  ?24- 
on  an  acorn  ;  the  specimen  figured,  when  found  had  her  snout 
inserted  in  the  acorn  up  to  the  antennae. 

Of  the  closely  allied  species  B.  rectns  (B.  rec'tus)  breeds 
in  acorns,  B.  nasicns  (B.  na-si'cus)  in  hickory-nuts,  and  B. 
caryatrypes  (B.  car-y-a-try'pes)  in  chestnuts. 

Probably  the  most  important  member  of  this  family  from 
an  economic  standpoint  is  the  Plum  Curculio,  Conotrac/ielns 
nenuphar  (Con-o-tra-che'lus  nen'u-phar).  This  is  the  insect 
that  stings  plums,  often  destroying  a  large  proportion  of  the 


594  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

fruit ;  the  larva  is  also  the  well-known  grub  or  "  worm  " 
of  "  wormy "  cherries.  The  presence  of  this  insect  in  an 
orchard  can  be  determined  early  in  the  season  by  a  peculiar 
mark  it  makes  when  laying  its  eggs  in  the  young  fruit.  The 
female  beetle  makes  an  incision,  with  her  snout,  through 
the  skin  of  the  fruit.  In  this  incision  she  lays  a  single  egg, 
which  she  pushes  with  her  snout  to  the  bottom  of  the  cav- 
ity that  she  has  prepared.  She  then  makes  a  crescent- 
shaped  incision  in  front  of  the  one  containing  the  egg.  This 
last  cut  undermines  the  egg,  leaving  it  in  a  little  flap.  The 
larvae  feed  within  the  fruit.  In  the  case  of  plums 'the  in- 
fested fruit  falls  to  the  ground ;  but  not  so  with  cherries. 
When  full  grown  the  larvae  usually  go  into  the  ground  to 
transform ;  a  few  transform  within  the  fruit.  This  species 
infests  nectarines,  apricots,  and  peaches  as  well  as  plums 
and  cherries.  This  insect  is  fought  in  two  ways :  the 
beetles  are  jarred  from  the  trees  upon  sheets  in  early  spring, 
and  destroyed  before  they  have  laid  their  eggs ;  they  are 
also  poisoned  by  spraying  the  trees  with  Paris-green-water 
before  the  fruit  is  large  enough  for  them  to  oviposit  in  it 
The  adult  beetle  feeds  upon  the  foliage,  and  can  thus  be 
poisoned. 

As  yet  this  species  does  not  occur  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  that  it  be  not  intro- 
duced there. 

The  Apple-weevil,  AntJionomus  quadrigibbus  (An-thon'o- 
musquad-ri-gib'bus),  infests  the  fruit  of  apple.  The  specific 
name  was  suggested  by  the  fact  that  there  are  two  wart-like 
projections  near  the  hinder  end  of  each  wing-cover. 

The   Strawberry-weevil,    Antlionomus   signatus   (A.    sig- 

^^!      na'tus),  is  sometimes  a  serious  pest  in  strawberry 

*|*P"^y plantations.     The  adult  beetle  (Fig.  725)  punctures 

FIG.  725.    the  pedicel  of  the  flower  a  short  distance  below  the 

buds,  and  lays  her  eggs  within  the  buds.     The  buds  drop  to 

the  ground,  and  the  larvae,  one  in  each,  develop  within  them. 

The  family  BRENTHID^:  (Bren'thi-dae)  is  confined  chiefly 


CO LEO P  TERA .  595 

to  tropical  regions,  and,  except  in  the  far  South,  only  a  single 
species  occurs  in  this  country.  This  species  is  the  Northern 
Brenthid,  Eupsalis  minuta  (Eu'psa-lis  mi-nu'ta),  which  is 
represented  by  Figure  726.  In  the  female  the  head  is  pro- 
longed into  a  slender  snout ;  but  in  the  male 
the  snout  is  broad  and  flat,  and  is  armed  with  a 
pair  of  powerful  jaws.  These  are  weapons  of 
offence,  for  the  males  fight  desperately  for  their 
mates ;  and,  too,  the  males  are  generally  larger 
than  the  females — an  unusual  occurrence  among  Fic-  726. 
insects.  It  is  interesting,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Mr. 
A.  R.  Wallace  in  his  "  Malay  Archipelago,"  "as  bearing  on 
the  question  of  sexual  selection,  that  in  this  case,  as  in  the 
stag-beetles,  where  the  males  fight  together,  they  should 
be  not  only  better  armed,  but  also  much  larger  than  the 
females." 

The  Northern  Brenthid  is  found  upon  oak-trees,  in  the 
solid  wood  of  which  the  larvae  bore,  and  is  widely  distributed 
over  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

One  species  of  Brenthus  is  found  in  Southern  Florida 
and  two  in  Lower  California.  In  this  genus  the  snout  is 
slender  in  both  sexes. 

The  only  other  representative  of  this  family  that  occurs 
on  this  continent  north  of  Mexico  is  the  Sweet  Potato  Root- 
borer,  Cylas  formica rius  (Cy'las  for-mi-ca'ri-us),  of  Louisiana 
and  Florida.  This  beetle  is  somewhat  ant-like  in  form ;  the 
color  of  the  elytra,  head,  and  snout  is  bluish  black,  that  of 
the  prothorax  reddish  brown. 

Family  CALANDRID^;  (Ca-lan'dri-dae). 
The  Bill-bugs. 

To  this  family  belong  some  of  our  most  common  snout- 
beetles.  Here  the  lateral  edge  of  the  metathorax  and  of 
the  abdomen  fits  into  a  groove  in  the  wing-cover,  and  the 
surface  of  the  wing-cover  in  this  groove  has  a  pearly  lustre ; 


596  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

the  pygidium  of  both  sexes  is  undivided,  and  may  be  cov- 
ered or  uncovered  by  the  wing-covers,  but  is  not  surrounded 
at  the  edge  by  them,  as  in  the  Scolytidae ;  the  tibiae  are  not 
serrate ;  the  antennae  are  elbowed  ;  and  the  labrum  is  want- 
ing. The  larvae  of  the  larger  species  bore  in  the  stems  of 
plants,  while  those  of  the  smaller  species  infest  grains  and 
seeds. 

Among  the  more  common  members  of  this  family  are 

several  species  of  the  genus  Sphenophorus  (Sphe-noph'o-rus) ; 

one  of  these  is  represented  by  Figure  727.    These  are 

^\bu     of  medium  or  rather  large  size,  and  are  often  marked 

JHk    in    a   very   characteristic    manner   by   longitudinal, 

'Mk '    elevated  bands  of  darker  color. 

/  I  One  of  the  most  important  members  of  the  family, 
FIG.  727.  from  an  economic  standpoint,  is  the  Rice-weevil,  Ca- 
landra  oryzce  (Ca-lan'dra  o-ry'zae).  This  is  a  small  snout- 
beetle,  measuring  only  one  fifth  inch  in  length.  It  is  usually 
black,  but  sometimes  it  is  of  pale-chestnut  color,  or  some 
shade  between  the  two.  It  is  exceedingly  abundant,  espe- 
cially in  the  Southern  States,  where  it  does  great  injury  to 
stored  grain  of  all  kinds. 

Family  SCOLYTID^:  (Sco-lyt'i-dae). 
The  Engraver-beetles. 

If  the  bark  be  pulled  from  dead  branches  or  trunks 
of  trees,  the  inner  layer  and  the  sap-wood  will  be  found 
to  be  ornamented  in  many  cases  with  burrows  of  more  or 
less  regular  form.  These  smoothly  cut  figures  are  the 
mines  of  the  engraver-beetles.  Many  kinds  of  these  engrav- 
ings can  be  found,  each  characteristic  of  a  particular  kind  of 
engraver-beetle.  A  common  pattern  is  shown  in  Figure  728. 

The  beetles  that  do  this  work  are  mostly  of  cylindrical 
form  and  of  small  size  ;  many  species  are  almost  microscopic, 
and  the  larger  ones  rarely  exceed  a  Quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length.  They  are  usually  brown,  sometimes  black ;  and 


COLEOPTERA.  597 

with  many  the  hind  end  of  the  body  is  very  blunt,  as  if  cut 
off.  The  antennae  are  elbowed  or  bent  in  the  middle,  and 
are  clubbed  at  the  tip  ;  the  tibiae  are  usually  serrate ;  the 


FIG.  728. 

pygidium   is  surrounded  at  the    edge  by  the  wing-covers, 
which  have  the  fold  on  the  inner  surface  well  developed. 

The  members  of  this  family  feed  almost  exclusively  on 
woody  plants.  Most  of  the  species  make  burrows  between 
the  bark  and  the  wood  ;  but  many  species  bore  directly  into 
the  solid  wood,  and  one  well-known  pest  lives  in  the  roots 
of  herbaceous  plants. 

In  the  case  of  the  kind  of  burrow  figured  above  and  other 
similar  ones  the  central  tunnel  is  made  by  the  mother 
beetle.  While  doing  this  she  makes  a  series  of  niches  along 
each  side  of  this  tunnel,  and  lays  an  egg  in  each.  When  the 
larvae  hatch,  each  one  deepens  its  niche,  and  thus  makes  a 
burrow  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  parent  beetle. 

In  the  case  of  a  European  species,  Tomicus  typogra- 
phus  (Tom'i-cus  ty-pog'ra-phus),  Dr.  K.  Lindeman,  a  Russian 
naturalist,  has  discovered  that  the  original  tunnel  is  be- 
gun by  the  male,  which  makes  a  little  chamber  in  the  bark  ; 
afterwards  the  female  comes  to  him  in  this  chamber,  and 
later  she  continues  the  mine  begun  by  her  mate,  making  the 
long  central  tunnel  from  which  the  tunnels  of  her  offspring 
extend.  Thus  we  see  that  all  of  the  members  of  a  single 
family  have  a  share  in  making  one  of  these  engravings.  It 


598  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

is  probable  that  the  males  of  other  species  have  similar 
habits,  but  how  general  this  is  has  not  yet  been  determined. 
The  members  of  this  family  are  among  the  most  injuri- 
ous of  the  insect  enemies  of  forest-trees.  Frequently  the 
trees  are  killed  outright ;  in  other  cases,  although  the  life  of 
the  tree  is  not  endangered,  the  timber  is  greatly  injured  by 
the  burrows.  Occasionally  fruit-trees  are  also  injured  by 
members  of  this  family. 

Figure  729  represents  one  of  the  larger  of  our  common 
species,    Dendroctonus     tenebrans     (Den-droc'to-nus     ten'e- 
brans).      This   is    a    light-yellowish    beetle,  .which 
lives  under  the  thick  bark  of  pine  logs  and  stumps. 
It  is  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  Clover-root  Borer,  Hylesinus  trifolii  (Hy- 
F«G.  729-  les'i-nus  tri-fo'li-i). — This  is  a  European  insect,  which 
has  found  its  way  to  this  country,  and  become  a  very  serious 
pest  in  the  Eastern  States.  It  differs  markedly  from  most 
of  the  members  of  this  family  in  that  it  makes  irregular 
burrows  in  the  roots  of  herbaceous  plants.  It  infests  clover 
and  allied  plants.  In  many  places  in  the  East  a  large 
proportion  of  the  two-year-old  clover  plants  are  infested  by 
it.  In  the  autumn  larvae,  pupae,  and  adults  are  found  in  the 
roots  of  such  plants,  and  the  adults  remain  here  throughout 
the  winter. 

The  family  ANTHRIBID.E  (An-thrib'i-dae)  includes  a  small 
number  of  snout-beetles,  in  which  the  fold  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  wing-covers  is  present,  the  pygidium  of  both 
sexes  is  undivided,  the  antennae  are  not  elbowed,  and  the 
labrum  is  present.  The  larvae,  as  a  rule,  infest  seeds  and 
the  stems  of  plants ;  some  of  them  are  said  to  have  short  but 
well-developed  legs.  The  larvae  of  the  genus  Brachytarsus 
(Brach-y-tar'sus),  which  are  very  small,  are  supposed  to  be 
parasitic  on  scale-insects. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

Order  HYMENOPTERA  (Hy-me-nop'te-ra). 
Bees,  Wasps,  A  nts,  and  others. 

TJie  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings ;  these  are 
membranous,  and  furnished  with  comparatively  few  or  with 
no  transverse  veins.  The  hind  wings  are  smaller  than  the 
fore  wings.  The  moiith-parts  are  formed  for  biting  and 
sucking.  The  abdomen  in  the  females  is  usually  furnished 
with  a  sting,  piercer,  or  saw.  The  metamorphosis  is  complete. 

The  bees,  wasps,  and  ants  are  among  the  better-known 
insects,  and  will  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  characteristic 
appearance  of  the  members  of  this  order.  They  are  chiefly 
insects  of  small  or  moderate  size,  and  many  of  them 
abound  wherever  flowers  bloom.  From  the  earliest  times 
the\r  have  been  favorites  with  students  of  the  habits  of  ani- 
mals, for  among  them  we  find  the  most  wonderful  develop- 
ments of  instinctive  powers.  Many  volumes  have  been 
written  regarding  their  ways,  and  much  remains  to  be  dis- 
covered, even  concerning  our  most  common  species. 

The  name  of  the  order  is  from  two  Greek  words — 
hyjncn,  membrane,  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the  fact 
that  the  wings  are  of  a  delicate  membranous  texture  ;  but 
this  characteristic  is  not  distinctive,  for  it  is  possessed  by 
the  wings  of  many  other  insects. 

In  the  Hymenoptera  the  wings  of  each  side  are  held  to- 
gether by  a  row  of  hooks  on  the  front  margin  of  the  hind 

599 


6oo 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


wing.  These  hooks  fasten  to  a  fold  in  the  hind  margin  of 
the  front  wing,  so  that  the  two  wings  present  a  continuous 
surface.  (Fig.  730). 


FIG.  730. — Wings  of  the  honey-bee. 

With  other  insects  the  mouth-parts,  if  well  developed, 
are  formed  either  for  biting  or  for  sucking, 
but  in  this  order  they  are  adapted  to  serve 
both  purposes  (Fig.  731).  The  mandibles 
are  fitted  for  biting,  and  they  are  sometimes 
very  powerful.  The  maxillae,  in  the  typical 
members  of  the  order,  are  long,  membranous 
or  leathery,  and  form  a  sheath  to  the  labium, 
the  three  organs  thus  constituting  an  appara- 
tus for  sucking  or  lapping  liquid  food.  The 
maxillary  and  the  labial  palpi  are  present. 

The  larvae  of  Hymenoptera  are  usually 
footless,  maggot-like  creatures,  incapable  of     ,bs- 
any  extended  motion,  and  entirely  depend-   -^bj^ 
ent  on  the  provision  made  for  them  by  the 
adult  insects.     But  in  the  two  lower  families  the  larva?  are 
furnished  with  legs,  and  frequently  have  a  striking  resem 
blance  to  caterpillars,  both  in  form  and  in  habits.    When  the 
larvae  are  full  grown  they  transform  to  inactive  pupae,  which 


HYMENOPTERA  6oi 

have  all  of  the  limbs  of  the  adult  insect  inclosed  in  sheaths, 
and  folded  upon  the  breast.  With  many  species  the  larva, 
before  changing  to  a  pupa,  spins  a  cocoon  about  its  body. 
With  some  this  cocoon  is  composed  of  comparatively  loose 
silk,  and  resembles  somewhat  the  cocoon  of  a  moth.  In 
others  the  cocoon  is  of  a  dense  parchment-like  texture,  and 
in  still  others  it  resembles  a  very  delicate  foil. 

Although  there  are  very  many  species  of  Hymenoptera, 
the  number  of  families  is  not  large.  The  following  synopsis 
will  aid  the  student  in  fixing  in  his  mind  the  relationships 
of  the  different  families  :  — 

SYNOPSIS   OF  THE   HYMENOPTERA. 

THE  BORING  HYMENOPTERA,  Suborder  TEREBRANTIA.     p.  610. 
The  Plant-eating  Hymenoptera. 
The  Saw-flies,  Family  TENTHREDINID.'E.    p.  611. 
The  Horn-tails,  Family  SlRlClD^E.     p.  614. 
The  Gall-inhabiting  Hymenoptera. 

The  Gall-flies,  Family  CYNIPID^E.     p   615. 
The  Parasitic  Hymenoptera. 

The  Trigonalids,  Family  TRIGONALID^E.     p.  621. 
The  Ichneumon-flies,  Family  ICHNEUMONID.*:.     p.  621. 
The  Stephanids,  Family  STEPHANIDJE.     p.  624. 
The  Braconids,  Family  BRACONID/E.     p.  625. 
The  Ensign-flies,  Family  EVANIID/E.     p.  626. 
The  Chalcis-flies,  Family  CHALCIDID^E.    p.  628. 
The  Proctotrupids,  Family  PROCTOTRUPID/E.    p.  630. 
THE  STINGING  HYMENOPTERA,  Suborder  ACULEATA.     p.  631. 
The  Pelecinus,  Family  PELECINID^E.     p.  631. 
The  Cuckoo-flies,  Family  CHRYSIDID.JE     p.  632. 
The  Ants,  Superfamily  FORMICINA.     p.  633. 

Family  FORMICIDJE.    p.  640. 

Family  PONERID^:.     p.  642. 

Family  MYRMICID^.    p.  642. 
The  Digger-wasps,  Superfamily  SPHECINA.     p.  644. 

The  Velvet-ants,  Family  MUTILLID/E.     p.  648. 

The  Scoliidsi  Family  SCOLIID^E.    p.  649. 

The  Sapygids,  Family  SAPYGID^;.    p.  649. 

The  Spider-wasps,  Family  POMPILID^E.     p.  650. 


6O2  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

The  Thread-waisted  Wasps,  Family  SPHECID^E.  p.  650. 

The  Ampulicids,  Family  AMPULICIM:.    p.  647. 

The  Larrids,  Family  LARRID.E.    p.  652. 

The  Bembecids,  Family  BEMBECID.E.     p.  652. 

The  Nyssonids,  Family  NYSSONID.B.     p.  654. 

The  Philanthids,  Family  PHILANTHID^E.     p.  654. 

The  Mimesids,  Family  MIMESID.E.     p.  655. 

The  Mellinids,  Family  MELLINID.E.     p.  647. 

The  Pemphredonids,  Family  PEMPHREDONID^.  p.  655. 

The  Crabronids,  Family  CRABRONID.E.     p.  656. 
The  True  Wasps,  Superfamily  VESPINA.    p.  657. 

The  Guest  Wasps,  Family  MASARID^E.     p.  657. 

The  Solitary  Wasps,  Family  EUMENID^;.     p.  658. 

The  Social  Wasps,  Family  VESPID^E.    p.  660. 
The  Bees,  Superfamily  APINA.     p.  664. 

The  Short-tongued  Bees,  Family  ANDRENID^.    p.  665. 

The  Long-tongued  Bees,  Family  APID^E.     p.  666. 

Classification    of  the    Hymenoptera. 

(For  Advanced  Students.) 

Nearly  all  of  the  technical  terms  used  in  the  descriptions  of 
Hymenoptera  in  this  work  have  been  defined  already.  For  a  general 
account  of  the  external  parts  of  these  insects  see  pp.  56-66 ;  for  a 
more  detailed  description  of  the  external  anatomy  of  an  insect,  see 
the  discussion  of  the  external  anatomy  of  beetles,  pp.  499. 

After  a  student  has  learned  to  recognize  the  sclerites  in  the  body 
wall  of  a  beetle,  he  will  have  but  little  trouble  in  determining  the 
parts  of  a  hymenopterous  insect.  The  following  points,  however, 
should  be  carefully  noted  :  — 

The  Propodeum. — A  remarkable  peculiarity  of  Hymenoptera  is 
that  the  first  abdominal  segment  is  united  with  the  thorax  in  such  a 
way  as  to  appear  to  be  a  part  of  it ;  and  what  appears  to  be  the  first 
abdominal  segment,  and  is  always  called  so,  is  really  the  sec- 
ond. The  true  first  abdominal  segment  is  called  the  propodeum 
(pro-po'-de-um). 

The  TVg-afe.— There  is  on  each  side  of  the  second  thoracic  seg- 
ment a  cup-like  scale  over  the  base  of  the  fore-wing  (Fig.  732,  5) ; 
this  is  the  parapteron  (see  p.  502).  The  paraptera  of  the  meso- 
thorax  of  Hymenoptera  are  termed  the  iegulce  (teg'u-lae) ;  they  cor- 
respond to  the  patagia  of  Lepidoptera  and  to  the  elytra  of 
Coleoptera. 


HYMENOPTERA.  603 

The  Parapsides. — in  this  order  the  scutum  ot  the  mesothorax  is 
divided  into  three  parts  by  two  longitudinal  sutures ;  the  lateral  por- 


FIG.  732.— A  Chalcis-fly  :  i.  pronotum ;   2,  2,  parapsides;  3,  mesal  part  of  the  scutum  of 
the  mesothorax  ;  4,  scutellum ;  5,  tegnlae. 

tions  of  the  scutum  thus  separated  from  the  mesal  part  (Fig.  732,  2,2) 
are  termed  the  parapsides  (pa-rap'si-des). 

The  Wing-veins. — It  is  much  more  difficult  to  determine  the 
homologies  of  the  wing-veins  of  the  Hymenoptera  than  those  of 
either  the  Lepidoptera  or  the  Diptera;  for  in  this  order  the  primitive 
plan  is  much  more  obscured.  The  best  way  to  learn  the  wing-veins 
of  the  Hymenoptera  is  to  make  first  a  careful  study  of  those  of  the 
Diptera,  and  then  to  compare  the  front  wing  of  a  generalized 
hymenopterous  insect  with  a  wing  of  one  of  the  more  generalized 
Diptera  ;  for  this  purpose  take  the  front  wing  of  a  saw-fly  of  the 
genus  Pamphilius  (Fig.  733)  and  that  of  Tabanus  (Fig.  539,  p.  454). 

In  Pamphilius  (Pam-phil  i-us),  and  in  most  other  Hymenoptera 
also,  the  anal  furrow  or  vein  VIII  is  easily  recognized  as  a  concave 
fold,  in  the  position  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  (Fig.  733,  VIII). 
Having  found  this,  a  very  important  landmark  is  established. 

Next  it  should  be  understood  that  the  Hymenoptera  belong  to 
that  series  of  orders  in  which  veins  IV  and  VI  are  not  developed  ; 
therefore  the  veins  that  lie  in  front  of  the  anal  furrow  are  veins  I,  II, 
III,  V,  and  VII. 

Vein  I  forms  the  costal  border  of   the  wing,  as   in  the   Diptera 

(Fig-  733,  I). 

Vein  II  is  usually  absent  in  the  Hymenoptera;  but  in  Pamphilius, 
and  in  a  few  other  genera,  it  is  well  preserved  (Fig.  733,  II).  It  is 
simple,  and  is  usually  connected  with  vein  III  by  a  cross-vein. 

Vein  III  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  of  the  veins  to  understand.  A 
very  careful  study  of  the  problem  has  convinced  the  writer  that  this 
vein  is  typically  five-branched  in  this  order,  resembling  in  this  re- 


6o4 


THE  STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 


spect  the  homologous  veins  in  the  Lepidoptera  and  Diptera.  In  the 
Hymenoptera  the  tips  of  the  branches  of  vein  III  coalesce  with 
other  veins ;  and  when  this  coalescence  has  proceeded  for  a  con- 
siderable distance  towards  the  base  of  the  wing,  the  branches  may 
appear  like  cross-veins,  instead  of  branches  of  a  longitudinal  vein. 
This  result  is  very  similar  to  what  takes  place  in  the  more  specialized 
Diptera.  In  Pamphilus  (Fig.  733)  vein  IIIa  is  wanting;  but  this  vein 
is  present  in  Macroxyela  (mac-rox-y-e'la)  (Fig.  735).  In  both  of 
these  genera  there  is  a  cross-vein  between  veins  IIIi  and  III2+6  (Fig. 
733'  cu)-  A  similar  cross-vein  exists  in  some  crane-flies,  dividing  cell 


XII 


FlG-  733-— Wings  of  a  saw-fly,  Pamphilius,  with  the  veins  numbered. 

Ill,  into  two  parts  (see  Fig.  505).  In  both  of  these  genera  also  the 
tips  of  veins  III4  and  IIIB  coalesce  with  vein  Vi  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  these  veins  appear  to  be  cross-veins.  In  the  wing  of  the 
Honey-bee  (Fig.  730)  these  veins  are  more  obviously  longitudinal 
veins. 

Vein  V  is  very  similar  to  the  homologous  vein  in  the  Diptera.  It 
arises  from  a  cross-vein  extending  from  vein  III  to  vein  VII.  In 
Pamphilius  it  arises  from  near  the  costal  end  of  this  cross-vein ;  but 
m  Apis  (Fig.  730)  its  origin  is  near  the  middle  of  the  cross-vein.  In 
the  Hymenoptera,  however,  the  cross- vein  III-VII  is  much  farther 
from  the  base  of  the  wing  than  it  is  in  the  Diptera.  In  the  more 


H  YMENOP  TERA .  605 

generalized  Hymenoptera  vein  V  is  three-branched,  and  veins  V2  and 
V3  are  connected  by  a  cross-vein,  as  in  the  Diptera  ;  but  this  cross- 
vein  appears  like  a  longitudinal  vein  (Fig.  733).  The  tip  of  vein  V3 
has  migrated  from  its  primitive  position  on  the  outer  margin  of  the 
wing  to  the  anal  furrow  (vein  VIII),  and  ends  in  this  furrow  at  a 
greater  or  less  distance  from  the  margin  of  the  wing  (Fig.  733);  the 
result  of  this  migration  is  to  pull  the  cross-vein  Va-V3  into  a  longi- 
tudinal position. 

Vein  VII  coalesces  with  vein  III  for  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  base  of  the  wing  in  Pamphilius  (Fig.  733)  ;  but  in  Apis  (¥ig.  730), 
and  in  many  other  forms,  it  arises  from  the  base  of  the  wing.  This 
vein  is  two-branched,  as  in  the  Lepidoptera  and  Diptera.  The  tips 
of  the  branches  of  vein  VII  have  migrated  from  the  margin  of  the 
wing  to  the  anal  furrow  (vein  VIII),  and  for  a  considerable  distance 
along  this  furrow  towards  the  base  of  the  wing,  so  that  both  of  these 
veins  (VIIi  and  VII2)  end  in  the  anal  furrow,  far  from  the  margin  of 
the  wing;  the  result  of  this  migration  is  to  pull  the  cross-vein 
Vs-VIIi  into  a  longitudinal  position.  In  Pamphilhts  (Fig.  733)  this 
cross-vein  is  nearly  longitudinal ;  in  Apis  (Fig.  730)  it  is  completely 
so.  In  Pamphilius  vein  Vila  is  very  short,  but  well  enough  de- 
veloped so  that  there  is  no  doubt  regarding  the  homology ;  but  in 
most  Hymenoptera  it  has  completely  disappeared. 

In  the  area  lying  back  of  the  anal  furrow  there  also  exists  a 
tendency  for  veins  to  coalesce  at  their  tips  ;  this  is  well  shown  in  both 
fore  and  hind  wings  of  Pamphilius  ;  and  in  the  hind  wings  especially 
the  united  tips  of  veins  IX  and  XI  have  migrated  towards  the  base 
of  the  wing  along  the  anal  furrow  (Fig.  733). 

The  concave  veins  of  the  anal  area  (veins  X  and  XII)  are  rarely 
developed  ;  in  the  hind  wing  of  Pamphilius  there  is  a  fold  which 
probably  represents  vein  XII  (Fig.  735). 

The  Cells  of  the  Wing. — Having  learned  the  venation  of  the  wings 
it  is  easy  to  number  the  cells.  There  are,  however,  a  few  special 
terms  that  are  used  in  works  on  this  order ;  the  more  important  of 
these  are  the  following :  — 

In  most  Hymenoptera  there  is  an  opaque  spot  on  the  costa,  a  short 
distance  beyond  the  middle  of  the  wing;  this  is  the  stigma  (Figs.  734 
and  735,  s).  The  stigma  lies  between  vein  IIIi  and  the  margin  of  the 
wing  ;  it  is  probably  the  apical  portion  of  cell  II.  In  Figure  733  it  has 
not  been  blackened  in  order  to  show  the  course  of  vein  IIIi'. 

Usually  vein  IIIi ,  after  joining  the  costa  at  the  end  of  the  stigma, 
does  not  again  separate  from  it,  but  is  joined  by  the  tip  of  vein  III3 
before  the  apex  of  the  wing  (Fig.  733).  But  in  certain  families  the 


6o6 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


FIG.  734.— Wings  of  a  saw-fly,  Pamphiiius^  with  the  ceils  numbered 


FlG-  735-— Wings  of  a  saw-fly,  Macroxyela,  with  the  cells  and  veins  II12  and  III3  of  the 
fore- wing  numbered. 


HYMENOPTERA.  60? 

tip  of  vein  IIIi  separates  from  the  costa  and  coalesces  with  the  tip  of 
vein  III3  at  some  distance  from  the  costa.  The  space  thus  formed 
between  the  united  tips  of  veins  IIIi  and  Ills  and  the  costa  is  termed 
the  appendiculate  cell  (Fig.  736,  ap). 


FIG.  736.— Wings  of  Larra  with  the  cells  numbered:  ap,  appendiculate  cell. 

The  cells  marked  m,  m,  in,  in  Figure  735,  are  termed  the  marginal 
cells  ;  and  those  marked  sm,  sm,  sm,  sm,  the  submarginal  cells. 

The  following  table  for  determining  the  families  of  the  Hymen- 
optera  has  been  compiled  from  the  works  of  several  writers  on  this 
order,  and  is  merely  provisional.  It,  however,  will  enable  the  student 
to  determine  the  larger  and  more  common  forms;  and  in  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge  the  study  of  the  minute  Hymenoptera  is  too 
difficult  for  the  beginner. 

TABLE   FOR    DETERMINING   THE    FAMILIES    OF   THE 
HYMENOPTERA, 

A.  Trochanters  of  the  posterior  legs,  consisting  each  of  two  segments 
(Fig.  737,  b)  ;  caudal  end  of  body  in  the  female  furnished  with  a 
saw  or  borer  for  depositing  the  eggs.     (Suborder  TEREBRANTIA.) 
B.  Abdomen  joined  broadly  to  the  thorax. 

C.  Anterior  tibiae  with  two  apical  spurs  ;  abdomen  of  female  fur- 
nished with  a  pair  of  saws.    p.  61 1 TENTHREDINID.E. 

CC.  Anterior  tibiae  with  one  apical  spur  ;  abdomen  of  female  fur- 
nished with  a  borer,      p.  614 SlRICIDvE. 

BB.  Base  of  abdomen  constricted. 

C.  Abdomen  joined  to  the  dorsal  aspect  of  the  metathorax.    p.  626. 

EVANIID.E. 

CC.  Insertion  of  the  abdomen  normal. 
D.  Fore  wings  with  no  closed  cells.* 

*  In  a  few  Proctotrupidae  the  wings  have  one  or  more  closed  cells. 


608  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

E.  Borders  of  the  mesoscutum  intervening  between  the  pro- 
notum  and  the  tegulae  (Fig.  738)  ;  ovipositor  issuing  be- 
fore the  apex  of  the  abdomen,  p.  628 CHALCIDIDA:. 

EE.  Pronotum  extending  to  the  tegulae  (Fig.  739) ;  oviposi- 
tor issuing  from  the  apex  of  the  abdomen,  p.  630. 

PROCTOTRUPID^E. 

DD.  Fore  wings  with  several   closed  cells,  or  at  least  with  a 
closed  or  nearly  closed  marginal  or  submarginal  cell.* 

E.  Fore  wings  without  a  stigma,     p.  615 CYNIPID^E. 

EE.   Fore  wings  with  a  stigma. 

F.  Fore  wing  with  the  vein  between  cells  Vi  and  ist  Va 
wanting  (Fig.  740). 

G.  Veins  I-1II  of  the  fore  wing  consolidated  from  the 

base  of  the  wing  to  the  stigma,    p.  625 . .  BRACONID/E. 

GG.  Base  of  fore  wing  with  a  cell  between  veins  I  and 

III.    p.  624 STEPHANID^E. 

FF.  Fore  wing  with  cells  Vi  and  ist  Va  separate  (Fig.  741). 

G.  Veins  I-III  of  fore  wing  consolidated  from  the  base 

of  the  wing  to  the  stigma,     p.  621 .  ..ICHNEUMONID^E. 

GG.  Base  of  fore  wing  with  a  cell  between  veins  I  and 

III.    p.  621 TRIGONALID.E. 

AA.  Troch;mters  of  the  posterior  legs,  consisting  each  of  a  single 
segment  (Fig.  737,  a)  ;  caudal  end  of  body  in  female  usually  fur- 
nished with  a  sting.     (Suborder  ACULEATA.) 
B.  Fore  wing  with  no  closed  submarginal  cells. 
C.  Abdomen  long;  antennas  long,  not  elbowed,  threadlike;  body 

smooth  and  polished,  black,    p.  631 PELECINID^E. 

CC.  Abdomen  but  little  longer  than  the  head  and  thorax ;  an- 
tennae short,  elbowed  ;  body  adorned  with  metallic  colors,  and 

often  coarsely  and  deeply  sculptured.  632 CHRYSIDID^E. 

BB.   Fore  wing  with  at  least  one  closed  submarginal  cell. 
C.  First  abdominal   segment,  and   sometimes   the  second  also, 
forming  a  lens-shaped  scale  or  knot  (Fig.  742) ;  base  of  front 

wing  not  protected  by  a  tegula.     p.  633 FORMICINA. 

CC.  Basal  part  of  abdomen  without  a  knot. 

D.  First  segment  of  posterior  tarsi  cylindrical  and  naked,  or 
with  but  little  hair;  hairs  clothing  thorax  simple. 
E.  Wings  not  plated  when  at  rest.     p.  644 SPHECIXA. 


*  Very  rarely  the  wings  are  without  closed  cells  in  some  Evaniidae  and 
Braconidae. 


HYMENOPTERA. 


609 


FIG.  737.— Legrs  of  insects  :  a,  wasp;  <5,       FIG.  738.— A  Chalcis-fly:   i,  pronotum;   2,  3, 
Ichnuemon-fly;  c,  bee;  t,  trochauter;          mesoscutum ;  3,  tegula. 
m,  metatarsus. 


FIG.  739.— A  Proctotrupid  :   i, 
pronotum;  5,  tegula. 


FIG.  740.— Wings  of  a  Braconid. 


FIG.  742. 


FIG.  741.— Wings  of  an  Ichneumon-fly. 


6lO  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

EE.  Wings  folded  in  plaits  when  at  rest.*    p.  657. 

VESPINA. 

DD.  First  segment  of  the  posterior  tarsi  enlarged,  flattened, 
and  more  or  less  clothed  with  hair ;  hairs  clothing  thorax 
plumose  (Fig.  737,  c).  p.  664 APINA. 

Suborder  TEREBRANTIA  (Ter-e-bran'ti-a). 
The  Boring  Hymenoptera. 

The  Hymenoptera  are  divided  irrto  two  suborders,  the 
Boring  Hymenoptera  and  the  Stinging  Hymenoptera.  In 
the  first  of  these  suborders  the  caudal  end  of  the  abdomen 
of  the  female  is  furnished  with  an  organ,  the  ovipositor, 
which  is  fitted  for  boring  a  hole  into  which  an  egg  is  to  be 
placed,  and  also  for  conveying  the  egg  into  this  hole.  The 
form  of  the  ovipositor  varies  greatly  in  the  different  families; 
in  one  the  boring  parts  are  represented  by  a  pair  of  saws,  by 
means  of  which  slits  are  made  in  the  leaves  of  plants  and  an 
egg  conveyed  into  each  slit ;  in  other  families  this  organ  is 
truly  a  boring  instrument  by  means  of  which  deep  holes  are 
made  into  trees  and  eggs  placed  in  these  holes ;  and  in  still 
other  cases  the  organ  is  fitted  for  thrusting  an  egg  into  the 
body  of  another  insect. 

Although  the  ovipositor  is  very  conspicuous  in  many 
members  of  this  suborder,  there  are  others  in  which  it  is 
more  or  less  completely  concealed  within  the  body,  and  thus 
affords  but  little  aid  to  the  student  who  is  classifying  his 
specimens;  moreover,  in  the  case  of  male  insects  we  must 
always  depend  on  some  other  character.  Fortunately  there 
is  another  character  by  which  the  suborders  can  be  separated. 
In  the  Boring  Hymenoptera  the  trochanter  of  the  hind  leg 

*  It  is  sometimes  difficult,  especially  in  the  case  of  cabinet  specimens 
with  the  wings  spread,  to  determine  whether  a  species  is  one  that  folds  its 
wings  or  not.  Biu  we  know  of  no  other  character  which  will  always  distin- 
guish the  Vespina  from  the  Sphecina.  The  following  will  often  be  of  ser- 
vice: In  all  North  American  Vespina  veins  V2  and  V3  both  arise  from  the 
second  submarginal  cell;  in  many  of  the  Sphecina  they  do  not. 


//  Y MEN  OP  TERA .  Oil 

is  composed  of  two  segments  (Fig.  737,  b\  while  in  the 
Stinging  Hymenoptera  it  consists  of  a  single  segment. 
There  may  be  exceptions  to  this  characterization  among  the 
minute  members  of  the  Terebrantia  ;  but  the  beginning 
student  will  hardly  undertake  the  study  of  these. 

Family  TENTHREDINID.E  (Ten-thre-din'i-dae;. 
The  Saw-flies. 

In  this  family  the  head  and  thorax  are  wide ;  the  base 
of  the  abdomen  is  not  slender,  as  in  most  Hymenoptera,  but 
broadly  joined  to  the  thorax  (Fig.  743,^) ;  and  the  abdomen 


f  :  a,  egg  ;  #,  young  larva  ;  c,  full- 
grown  larva  ;    d,  anal  segment  of  full-grown  larva  ;   e,  cocoon  ;  _/,  adult.      (From  the 


FIG.  743.—  The  Locust  saw-fly,  Nematus 
wn  larva  ;    d,  anal  seg 
Author's  Report  for  1879.) 


of  the  female  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  saws.  The  larvae 
look  like  caterpillars  and  feed  upon  leaves  (Fig.  743) ;  but 
they  have,  ordinarily,  from  twelve  to  sixteen  prolegs,  while 


6l2  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

true  caterpillars  have  only  ten.*  Most  saw-fly  larvae  have 
the  curious  habit  of  curling  the  hind  end  of  the  body  side- 
wise. 

The  saw-fly  larvae  make  parchment-like  cocoons  which 
they  sometimes  attach  to  the  plants  on  which  they  have 
fed  ;  but  they  often  burrow  'in  the  ground  and  spin  their  co- 
coons there.  The  adult  saw-fly  lays  its  eggs  upon  the  food 
plant,  and  in  some  strange  way,  perhaps  by  the  absorption 
of  moisture,  the  eggs  increase  in  size  before  they  hatch. 
The  saws  of  the  female  are  set  side  by  side  in  a  groove  un- 
der the  end  of  the  body  like  the  blades  of  a  penknife  in  the 
handle.  These  saws  can  be  shoved  out  and  moved  up  and 
down.  Here  we  have  at  least  one  instance  where  the  fe- 
male wielding  of  a  saw  is  done  most  skilfully,  for  the  female 
saw-fly  uses  these  nice  tools  in  a  very  efficient  manner  to 
make  slits  in  the  leaves  and  stems  of  plants  in  which  she 
places  her  eggs. 

The  American  Saw-fly,  Cimbex  americana  (Cim'bex 
a-mer-i-ca'na). —  This  is  the  largest  of  our  common  saw-flies. 
The  female  is  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long  and  has  a 
black  head  and  thorax,  a  steel-blue  or  purplish  abdomen, 
with  four  yellowish  spots  on  each  side,  smoky  brown  wings, 
and  black  legs,  while  her  feet  and  short,  knobbed  antennae 
are  pale  yellow.  The  male  is  longer  and  slenderer,  and  dif- 
fers somewhat  in  color.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  June  in  cres- 
cent-shaped slits  made  in  leaves.  The  food  plants  are  elm, 
birch,  linden,  and  willow.  The  larva  is  greenish  yellow,  with 
black  spiracles  and  a  black  stripe  down  its  back.  When  dis- 
turbed it  spurts  forth  a  fluid  from  glands  just  above  the 
spiracles.  There  is  but  one  brood  each  year.  After  the 
larva  is  grown  it  burrows  in  the  ground,  makes  an  oval  brown- 
ish cocoon,  and  there  spends  the  winter,  not  changing  to  a 
pupa  until  spring.  The  adult  appears  in  May  or  June.  These 
saw-flies  have  been  known  to  injure  willows  by  biting  inci- 

*  Except  in  the  Megalopygidae,  see  p.  219. 


H  YMENOP  TERA .  613 

sions  half-way  round  the  terminal  twigs  of  the  tree.     What 
their  object  was  in  doing  this  is  a  mystery. 

The  Rose-Slug,  Monostegia  roses  (Mon-os-te'gi-a  ro'sae). 

—  Often  in  the  summer  our  rose-gardens  look  as  if  fire  had 
swept  over   them,  so  scorched  and  brown  are  the   leaves. 
The  cause  of    this  apparent  conflagration  is  a  transparent 
jelly-like    slug,  greenish  above  and  yellowish   below,  which 
eats  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves,  leaving  patches  of  the 
lower  surface  and  the  veins.     These  slugs  usually  feed  by 
night  and  remain  hidden  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves 
by  day.     When  ready  to  pupate  they  crawl  down  or  drop  to 
the  ground    and  burrow  beneath  the  surface;    here    each 
makes  a  little  cell  and   then  transforms.     The  adult  fly  is 
shining  black  with  smoky  wings,  and  with  the  fore  and  mid- 
dle legs  grayish  or  dirty-white.     The  female  is  about  one 
fifth  inch  in  length.     There  are  two  broods  a  year,  one  in 
June  and  one  in  August.     The  last  brood  passes  the  winter 
in  the  ground.     This  pest  can  be  destroyed  with  a  solution 
of  whale-oil  soap,  or  with  kerosene  emulsion. 

The  Pear-tree  Slug,  Eriocampa  cerasi  (Er-i-o-cam'pa  cer'- 
a-si). —  The  eggs  of  this  species  are  laid  on  the  leaves  of  pear 
and  cherry  trees,  at  the  beginning  of  the  summer.  In  about 
ten  days  the  slugs  hatch;  they  are  at  first  whitish,  but  soon 
cover  themselves  with  a  dirty  green,  gummy  excretion. 
When  full-grown  these  larvae  attain  the  length  of  half  an 
inch.  The  fore  part  of  the  body  is  enlarged;  and  they  rest 
with  their  tails  in  the  air,  and  appear,  as  Mr.  Harris  aptly 
observes,  like  minute  tadpoles.  These,  like  the  rose-slugs, 
eat  only  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves.  The  species  is  two- 
brooded  ;  the  second  brood  passes  the  winter  in  the  ground. 
The  larvae  can  be  destroyed  in  the  same  way  as  the  preced- 
ing species. 

The  Currant-worm,  Nematus  ribesii  (Nem'a-tus  ri-be'si-i). 

—  This  well-known  enemy  of  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes 
belongs  to  the  class  of  criminal  emigrants,  and  has  gained  a 
foothold  and  flourishes  in  our  midst  in  spite  of  us.    The  fe- 


6 14  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

male  deposits  her  eggs  on  the  under  side  of  the  first  leaves 
that  appear  on  the  currant  ;  the  eggs  are  glossy  and  white, 
and  are  placed  in  rows  along  the  ribs  of  the  leaf.  In  ten 
days  the  larva  hatches  ;  it  is  at  first  whitish,  with  a  big  head  ; 
it  grows  fast,  and  soon  becomes  green,  and  then  has  black 
dots  and  a  black  head,  and  looks  like  a  caterpillar.  A 
brood  will  strip  a  bush  of  all  its  leaves.  The  larva  spins 
a  brownish  paper-like  cocoon,  sometimes  fastening  it  to  the 
stripped  bush,  and  sometimes  making  it  just  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  There  are  two  broods,  and  as  the  flies 
of  one  brood  do  not  issue  all  at  the  same  time,  the  fight 
against  them  must  be  pretty  constant.  Hellibore  or  Paris- 
green  are  the  substances  commonly  used  to  destroy  this  in- 
sect. There  is  a  native  saw-fly  on  currents  that  has  much 
the  same  habits. 

Family  SIRICID.E  (Si-ric'i-dae). 
The  Horn-tails. 

These  are  so  named  because  in  this  family  the  end  of 
the  body  usually  bears  a  spine  or  horn.  This  is  short  and 
triangular  in  the  males,  and  long  and  often  spear-shaped  in 
the  females.  The  horn-tails  are  closely  related  to  the  saw- 
flies,  but  differ  from  them  in  the  shape  of  the  ovipositor, 
which  is  made  for  boring  instead  of  sawing,  and  in  the 
habits  of  the  larvae,  which  are  borers  in  solid  wood. 

The  ovipositor  consists  of  five  long  slender  pieces ;  the 
two  outside  pieces  are  grooved  on  the  inner  surface,  and 
when  joined  make  a  sheath  containing  the  other  three 
pieces  ;  one  of  these  is  nearly  cylindrical,  and  is  channelled 
beneath  for  the  reception  of  the  other  two,  which  are  very 
slender  and  stiff,  and  furnished  at  the  tip  with  transverse 
ridges,  like  the  teeth  of  a  file.  With  this  complex  instru- 
ment the  female  can  bore  a  deep  hole  into  a  tree  and  place 
an  egg  at  the  bottom  of  it. 

There  are  several  species  of  horn-tails  in  America.     A 


H  Y MEN  OP  TERA .  6 1  $ 

typical  species  is  The  Pigeon  Horn-tail,  Tremex  colnmba 
(Tre'mex  co-lum'ba).  The  body  of  this  insect  is  cylindri- 
cal, as  large  around  as  a  me- 
dium-sized lead-pencil,  and 
at  least  an  inch  and  a  half 
long  (Fig.  744).  The  thorax 
and  head  are  rust-red  and 
black.  The  abdomen  is  black, 
with  ochre-yellow  bands  and 
spots  along  the  sides;  the 
horn  at  the  hind  end  of  the 
body  is  yellow;  the  antennae 
are  rust-red,  with  broad  black  FlG  w-— Tremex 

rings  at  the  middle.  The  wings  are  smoky  color  and  trans- 
parent ;  the  legs  are  dull  yellow.  The  female  pierces  the 
wood  of  a  tree  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch,  where  she  de- 
posits her  eggs ;  sometimes  her  ovipositor  gets  wedged  in 
the  Wood  and  holds  her  there  a  prisoner  until  she  dies. 
The  grub  is  cylindrical  and  whitish,  and  attains  the  length 
of  an  inch  and  a  half ;  it  does  great  injury  by  perforating 
trees,  especially  elms.  It  transforms  within  a  cocoon  made  of 
silk  and  fine  chips.  When  the  fly  emerges  it  breaks  through 
the  cocoon,  creeps  to  the  mouth  of  the  burrow,  gnaws 
through  the  bark,  and  flies  off. 

The  preceding  is  the  only  species  of  Tremex  that  occurs 
in  our  fauna.  In  this  genus  there  is  a  single  closed  marginal 
and  two  closed  submarginal  cells.  The  Horn-tails  of  the 
genus  *$y/^;r  (Si'rex),  of  which  we  have  many  species,  closely 
resemble  Tremex  in  form,  but  differ  in  having  two  marginal 
and  three  submarginal  cells. 

Family  CYNIPID/E  (Cy-nip'i-dae). 
The  Gall-flies. 

These  insects  are  termed  gall-flies  because  the  majority  of 
the  species  live  within  galls;  but  it  should  be  remembered 


6l6  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

that  not  all  of  the  members  of  this  family  are  developed 
in  galls,  and  that  galls  are  produced  by  many  insects 
that  do  not  belong  to  this  family.  Galls  made  by  mites, 
plant-lice,  flies,  and  moths  have  been  described  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages,  and  galls  are  also  produced  by  beetles  and  cer- 
tain other  insects  ;  but  the  great  majority  of  these  strange 
growths  are  made  either  by  mites,  plant-lice,  or  true  gall- 
'  flies  (Cynipidae). 

The  galls  made  by  mites  and  plant-lice  have  open  mouths, 
from  which  the  young  of  the  original  dweller  escape.  But 
in  the  case  of  the  gall-flies  the  gall  is  closed,  and  a  hole  must 
be  made  by  the  insect  in  order  to  emerge.  Moreover,  there 
is  no  reproduction  of  insects  within  the  galls  of  gall-flies,  as 
there  is  within  the  galls  of  mites  and  plant-lice.  Many 
species  of  gall-flies  undergo  their  transformations  within 
their  galls;  while  in  other  species  the  full-grown  larva  leaves 
the  gall  and  enters  the  earth  to  transform.  But  in  each  case 
the  adult  female  provides  for  the  production  of  new  galls, 
in  which  their  young  are  to  develop. 

In  the  adult  gall-fly  the  abdomen  is  usually  much  com- 
pressed. It  is  joined  to  the  thorax  by  a  short  peduncle,  the 

first  abdominal  segment  (Fig. 
745).  The  second  and  third 
abdominal  segments  are  large, 
and  the  remaining  segments, 
usually  five  in  number,  are 
short,  and  each  is  more  or  less 
covered  by  the  preceding  seg- 
ment. Concealed  within  these 
segments  is  the  long,  partially 
coiled,  very  slender  ovipositor, 


the  abdomen.  The  wings  of  gall-flies  have  compara- 
tively few  veins,  and  the  fore  wings  lack  the  stigma  ;  some 
forms  are  wingless.  The  antennae  are  not  elbowed,  and 
consist  of  from  thirteen  to  sixteen  segments.  The  larvae 


H  Y MEN  OP  TERA .  6 1 7 

are  maggot-like,  and  without  a  caudal  opening  to  the  ali- 
mentary canal. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  each  species  of  gall-insect 
infests  a  special  part  of  one  or  more  particular  species  of 
plants,  and  the  gall  produced  by  each  species  of  insect  is  of 
a  definite  form.  Hence  when  an  entomologist  who  has 
studied  these  insects  sees  a  familiar  gall,  he  knows  at  once 
what  species  of  insect  produced  it. 

Naturalists  have  speculated  much  as  to  the  way  galls  are 
made  to  grow.  It  has  been  supposed  that  at  the  time  the  egg 
is  laid  there  is  deposited  in  the  tissue  of  the  plant  with  it  a 
drop  of  poison,  which  causes  the  abnormal  growth.  By  this 
theory  the  differences  between  the  galls  of  different  insects 
was  explained  by  supposing  that  the  fluid  produced  by  each 
species  of  insect  had  peculiar  properties.  There  are  certain 
kinds  of  galls  which  may  be  produced  in  this  way.  Thus  it 
is  said  that  the  wound  made  by  a  certain  saw-fly  in  the  leaves 
of  willow  causes  an  abundant  formation  of  plant-cells,  and 
the  gall  thus  formed  attains  its  full  growth  at  the  end  of  a 
few  days,  and  before  the  larva  has  escaped  from  the  egg. 
But  with  the  gall-flies  the  gall  does  not  begin  to  grow  until 
the  larva  is  hatched  ;  but  as  soon  as  the  larva  begins  to  feed, 
the,  abnormal  growth  of  the  plant  commences.  In  this  case, 
therefore,  if  the  gall  is  produced  by  a  poison,  this  poison 
must  be  excreted  by  the  larva. 

There  exists  in  many  species  of  gall-flies  an  alternation  of 
generations ;  that  is,  the  individuals  of  one  generation  do  not 
resemble  their  parents,  but  are  like  their  grandparents.  In 
many  cases  the  two  succeeding  generations  of  a  species 
differ  so  greatly  that  they  have  been  considered  not  merely 
as  distinct  species,  but  have  been  placed  in  different  genera. 
Thus  it  has  been  found  by  Mr.  Adler,  of  Schleswig,  that 
that  while  a  certain  species  of  Neuroterus  (Neu-rot'e-rus)  is 
developed  in  one  kind  of  gall  on  the  leaves  of  oak,  the 
larvae  that  hatch  from  eggs  laid  by  it  produce  a  different 
kind  of  gall,  and  develop  into  gall-flies  which  do  not  present 


6l8  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

the  characteristics  of  Neuroterus,  but  have  been  classed  in 
another  genus  under  the  name  Spathegaster  (Spath-e-gas'ter). 
These  in  turn  lay  eggs  which  develop  into  gall-flies  like  their 
grandparents,  i.e.,  a  species  of  Neuroterus.  Not  only,  says 
Mr.  Adler,  do  the  two  generations  live  in  galls  differing  in 
form,  color,  and  situation,  and  the  insects  exhibit  among 
themselves  differences  of  size,  proportions,  and  structure,  but 
what  renders  the  contrast  more  striking  is  that  the  Neu- 
roterus  generation  is  only  represented  by  females,  whilst  the 
Spathegaster  generation  presents  individuals  of  both  sexes. 

Although  alternation  of  generations  occurs  in  many 
species  of  the  Cynipidae,  it  is  believed  that  there  are  other 
species  in  which  the  parthenogenetic  form  exists  alone ;  that 
is,  the  species  reproduce  continuously  without  any  males  ap- 
pearing. There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  parthenogenetic 
species  have  descended  from  species  consisting  of  both  sexes. 
Still,  it  is  said  that  no  case  is  now  known  of  a  bisexual  form 
existing  alone ;  each  bisexual  species  is  merely  a  link  in  a 
cycle  containing  a  parthenogenetic  generation. 

The  members  of  this  family  infest  many  kinds  of  plants, 
but  their  galls  occur  most  abundantly  on  oaks.  Among  the 
more  conspicuous  species  are  the  following : 

The  Fibrous  Oak  apple,  Amphibolips  coccinece  (Am-phib'- 
o-lips  coc-cin'e-ae). — There  are. several  large,  spherical  galls, 
common  on  oaks,  which  have  received  the  name  of  oak-apples. 
These  galls  resemble  each  other  quite  closely  in  their  ex- 
ternal appearance,  but  differ  much  in  their  internal  struc- 
ture. The  one  which  we  name  the  Fibrous  Oak-apple  is 
represented  by  Figure  746.  In  the  centre  of  the  gall  there  is 
a  small,  hollow  kernel,  in  the  cavity  of  which  the  gall-fly  is 
developed.  The  space  between  this  kernel  and  the  dense 
outer  layer  of  the  gall  is  filled  with  many  fibres,  which  radi- 
ate from  the  kernel.  This  gall  is  found  on  the  scarlet  oak, 
and  varies  in  size  from  three  fourths  inch  to  two  inches  in 
diameter. 

The  Spongy  Oak-apple,  Amphibolips  spongifica  (A.  spon- 


H  Y MEN  OP  TERA .  619 

gif'i-ca),  is  most  common  on  the  red  oak,  but  it  occurs  also 
on  the  black  oak.  In  this  gall  the  space  between  the  kernel 
and  the  outer  layer  is  quite  densely  filled  with  a  porous 
mass,  which  suggests  the  name  spongy. 

The  Larger  Empty  Oak-apple,  Holcaspis  mam's  (Hol- 
cas'pis  i-na'nis). — There  are  two  oak-apples  which  are  very 
similar  in  structure,  and  which  may  be  termed  the  empty 
oak-apples.  In  these  the  space  between  the  central  kernel 


FIG.  746.— Gall  of  Amphibolips  coccinece. 

and  the  outer  shell  contains  only  a  few,  very  slender,  silky 
filaments,  which  hold  the  kernel  in  place.  The  larger  of 
these  two  galls  measures  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  and 
is  found  on  the  scarlet  oak  and  the  red  oak. 

The  Smaller  Empty  Oak-apple,  Holcaspis  centricola  (H. 
cen-tric'o-la),  is  found  on  the  post-oak,  and  measures  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  or  less  in  diameter.  It  also  differs  from 
the  preceding  in  that  the  outer  shell  is  mottled. 

The  Bullet-gall,  Holcaspis  globulus  (H.  glob'u-lus).— One 
of  the  most  common  galls  on  our  oaks  in  the  Northeastern 


620 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


States  is  a  bullet-like  gall,  which  is  attached  to  the  small 
twigs,  and  which  measures  from  one  half  to  two  thirds  inch 
in  diameter.  In  this  gall  the  central  kernel  is  surrounded 
by  a  hard,  woody  substance. 

The  Giant  Oak-gall,  Andricus  calif ornicus  (An'dri-cus 
cal-i-for'ni-cus. — This  is  the  most  common  oak-gall  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  It  is  very  abundant  on  the  twigs  and  branches 
of  the  California  white  oak,  and  during  the  winter,  when  the 
trees  are  bare,  it  is  a  very  conspicuous  object.  It  differs 
from  the  preceding  galls  in  being  of  the  type  termed  poly- 
thalamous;  that  is,  instead  of  containing  a  single  cell,  there 
are  several  cells  within  it,  in  each  of  which  a  gall-fly  is  d^yel- 
oped.  This  gall  varies  greatly  in  form  and  size  ;  some  of  the 
larger  ones  measure  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  their  greatest 
circumference.  The  outer  surface  of  the  gall  is  white,  and 
usually  smooth. 

The  Pithy  Blackberry-gall,  Diastrophus  nebulosus  (Di-as'- 

tro  -  phus  neb- 
u - 1  o ' s u s),  is 
another  exam- 
ple of  a  poly- 
thalamous  gall. 
It  is  a  large 
woody  growth, 
which  occurs 
on  the  stems 
of  blackberry. 
It  is  sometimes 
three  inches  in 
length  and  one 
and  one-half 
inches  in  diam- 
eter. It  varies 
in  shape,  but 

F'G>  747-— The  Mossy  Rose-gall,  Rhodites  ros<e.  there       are       ftl- 

ways  several  wrinkled  ridges  along  the  stem. 


HYMENOPTERA.  621 

The  Mossy  Rose-gall,  Rhodites  roses  (Rho-di'tes  ro'sae), 
is  a  very  common  polytlialamous  gall,  which  is  formed  on 
the  stem  of  the  sweetbrier  (Fig.  747).  The  gall  consists  of 
a  large  number  of  hard  kernels  surrounding  the  branch  and 
covered  with  reddish  or  green,  moss-like  filaments.  In  each 
of  these  kernels  a  gall  fly  is  developed. 

The  Guest  Gall-flies  or  Inquilines  (In'qui-lins). — There  are 
many  gall-flies  that  do  not  form  galls,  but  lay  their  eggs  in 
the  galls  made  by  some  other  species.  The  larvae  of  these 
guest  gall-flies  feed  upon  these  galls,  and  in  many  instances 
do  not  discommode  the  owners  in  the  least. 

Family  TRIGONALID^:  (Trig-o-nal'i-dae). 
TJie  Trigonalids  (  Tri-gori  a-lids). 

This  family  includes  only  one  genus,  Trigonalys  (Tri- 
gon'a-lys),  of  which  there  are  only  four  North  American 
species.  All  of  these  are  rare. 

In  this  genus  there  is  a  distinct  cell  between  veins  I  and 
III  of  the  fore  wing ;  the  stigma  is  well  developed  ;  there  is 
only  one  marginal  cell,  but  this  reaches  nearly  to  the  apex 
of  the  wing ;  and  there  are  four  submarginal  cells. 

Family  ICHNEUMONIDyE  (Ich-neu-mon'i-dee). 
The  Ichneumon-flies. 

When  the  discouraged  farmer  sees  his  crops  harvested 
before  due  time  by  hordes  of  hungry  insects,  he  is  apt  to 
long  for  a  miracle  to  remove  the  plague  from  his  fields. 
Oftener  than  he  dreams  the  miracle  takes  place,  and  millions 
of  insect  pests  never  live  to  lay  their  eggs  for  another  brood. 
Such  miracles  are  most  frequently  wrought  by  members  of 
this  and  the  allied  families.  These  constitute  a  group  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  the  Parasitic  Hymenoptera  (see  Synop- 
sis, p.  601),  a  group  containing  the  great  majority  of  all 
parasitic  insects. 

Very  many  other  insects  play  an  important  part  in  the 


622 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


destruction  of  insect  pests ;  but  in  most  cases  these  other 
insects  are  simply  predaceous,  pouncing  upon  and  destroy- 
ing such  insects  as  they  can  overcome.  But  the  true  para- 
sites act  in  a  very  different  way.  Although  some  species 
are  external  parasites,  most  of  them  live  within  the  bodies 
of  their  victims,  within  which  they  pass  their  entire  larval 
existence.  Their  presence  in  this  strange  situation  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  parent  lays  her  eggs  within  or  upon  the 
body  of  the  insect  to  be  destroyed.  When  the  egg  is  laid 
upon  the  body  of  the  victim,  the  larva  as  soon  as  it  hatches 
bores  its  way  into  the  body.  So  in  either  case  the  young 
parasite  is  in  the  midst  of  suitable  food.  It  is  probable  that 


FIG.  748.— Wings  of  Exetastes  fascifennis. 

the  parasite  feeds  only  on  the  blood  of  its  host ;  hence  the 
parasitized  insect  is  not  destroyed  at  once,  but  lives  on  with 
the  parasite  within  it,  which  gradually  attains  its  growth. 
Finally,  the  parasitized  insect  perishes ;  and  from  the  larva 
that  has  been  nourished  in  its  body  there  is  developed  a 
winged  creature,  which  in  turn  lays  its  eggs  in  other  victims. 
Frequently  a  parasitic  insect  lays  several  eggs  within  a  single 
victim,  so  that  a  number  of  parasites  may  be  developed 
within  the  body  of  a  single  insect.  Each  species  of  these 
parasites  infests  only  certain  insects,  each  insect  having,  to 
a  great  extent,  its  peculiar  parasites. 

Although  the  Ichneumonidae  include  some  minute  forms, 


H  Y MEN  OP  TERA,  62  3 

the  species  are  mostly  of  considerable  size,  and  here  belong  the 
larger  of  the  parasitic  Hymenoptera.  In  this  family  the  wings 
are  furnished  with  several  closed  cells  ;  the  fore  wings  have 
a  stigma;  and  cells  V,  and  ist  Va  are  separate  (Fig.  748). 

The  largest  members  of  the  family  belong  to  the  genus 
Thalessa.  These  are  remarkable-looking  insects,  with  long, 
slender  bodies  and  three  long  hairs  at  the  end  of  the  body. 
Two  of  these  hairs  form  a  sheath  for  the  third,  which  is  the 
ovipositor.  This  ovipositor,  although  apparently  merely  a 
thread,  is  really  composed  of  three  pieces  placed  parallel, 
one  above  and  two  below,  and  securely  locked  together. 
Near  the  end  of  them  are  ridges  like  those  on  a  file,  and 
between  them  is  a  passage  through  which  the  egg  is  forced 
when  it  is  laid. 

Thalessa  lunator  (Tha-les'sa  lu-na'tor)  is  one  of  the 
larger  of  our  Ichneumon-flies.  Its  body  is  two  and  one 
half  inches  long,  and  it  measures  nearly  ten  inches  from 
the  tip  of  the  antennae  to  the  tip  of  the  ovipositor.  It 
is  a  parasite  of  the  wood-boring  larva  of  the  Pigeon  Horn- 
tail.  When  a  female 
finds  a  tree  infested  by 
this  insect  she  selects  a 
place  which  she  judges  is 
opposite  a  Tremex-bur- 
row,  and,  elevating  her 
long  ovipositor  in  a  loop 
over  her  back,  with  its 
tip  on  the  bark  of  the 
tree  (Fig.  749),  she 
makes  a  derrick  out  of 
her  body,  and  proceeds 
with  great  skill  and  pre- 
cision to  drill  a  hole  into 
the  tree.  When  the 

Trem  eX-burrOW    is  FIG.  T^.—  T/ialessa  lunator. 

reached  she  deposits  an  egg  in  it.     The  larva  that  hatches 


624  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

from  this  egg  creeps  along  this  burrow  until  it  reaches 
its  victim,  and  then  fastens  itself  to  the  horn-tail  larva, 
which  it  destroys  by  sucking  its  blood.  The  larva  of 
Thalessa  when  full  grown  changes  to  a  pupa  within  the  bur- 
row of  its  host,  and  the  adult  gnaws  a  hole  out  through  the 
bark  if  it  does  not  find  a  hole  already  made  by  the  Tremex. 
Sometimes  the  adult  Tkalessa,  like  the  adult  Tremex,  gets 
her  ovipositor  wedged  in  the  wood  so  tightly  that  it  holds 
her  a  prisoner  until  she  dies. 

The  most  common  of  our  larger  Ichneumon-flies  belongs 
to  the  genus  Ophion  (O'phi-on)  (Fig. 
750)  ;  these  have  yellow  bodies.  They 
infest  the  caterpillars  of  the  Polyphe- 
mus-moth, and  only  a  single  egg  is 
laid  within  each  victim.  The  cater- 
pillar lives  until  it  spins  its  cocoon, 
FIG.  w.-ophion.  but  does  not  change  to  a  pupa.  The 
Ichneumon  larva  when  full  grown  spins  a  dense  brownish 
cocoon  within  the  cocoon  of  the  caterpillar.  Another  smaller 
Ichneumon-fly,  Cryptus  extrematis  (Cryp'tus  ex-tre-ma'tis), 
infests  the  same  caterpillar,  but  more  than  one  egg  is  laid  in 
a  caterpillar  by  the  female.  We  have  bred  thirty-five  of 
these  Ichneumon-flies  from  one  caterpillar.  The  larvae  of 
this  species  also  spin  their  cocoons  within  the  cocoon  of  their 
host. 

Family  STEPHANIDJE  (Ste-phan'i-dae). 
The  Stephanids  (Steph' a-nids). 

This  family  includes  only  four  North  American  species, 
and  all  of  these  are  rare.  They  resemble  the  Braconids  in 
lacking  the  vein  between  cells  V,  and  ist  V8  of  the  fore  wing, 
but  differ  in  having  a  cell  between  veins  I  and  III. 


H  YMENOP  TERA . 


625 


Family  BRACONID.E  (Bra-con'i-dae). 
The  Braconids  (Brae1  o-nids\ 

The  Braconidae  include  a  large  number  of  parasites, 
which  are  small  or  of  moderate  size.  They  are  often  called 
Ichneumon-flies;  but  it  seems  best  to  restrict  that  name  to 
members  of  the  Ichneumonidae.  In  the  Braconids  the 


FIG.  751. — Wings  of  Rhogas parasiticus. 

wings  have  several  closed  cells,  the  fore  wings  are  furnished 
with  a  stigma,  and  the  vein  between  cells  V,  and  ist  V2  is 
wanting  (Fig.  751).  This  last  character  is  important,  as  dis- 
tinguishing the  members  of  this  family  from  the  true  Ichneu- 
mon-flies, which  they  resemble  both  in  appearance  and  habits. 
It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing,  especially  in  vineyards,  to 
find  a  feeble  caterpillar  with  its  back  covered  with  little,  white, 
oblong  bodies,  which  the  ignorant  usually  think  are  its  own 
e»&s  (fig.  75 2).  These  are 
the  cocoons  of  braconid  par- 
asites. The  larvae  obtain 
their  growth  within  the  body 
of  the  caterpillar,  and  just 
before  it  perishes  they  leave 
it,  and  spin  their  silken  cocoons  upon  its  back.  When  these 
cocoons  are  examined  with  a  lens  they  are  found  to  be  beau- 


FIG.  7sv.  —  Caterpillar  with  cocoons  of  a 


pillar  wit 
Braconid. 


626  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

tiful  objects,  resembling  in  miniature  those  of  the  silkworm. 
The  adult  parasite  in  emerging  from  its  cocoon  cuts  a  neat 
little  lid  at  its  upper  end.  These  parasites  belong  to  the 
genus  Microgaster  (Mic-ro-gas'ter).  Bunches  of  white  or 
yellow  cocoons  of  Microgaster  are  often  found  attached  to 
grass  or  other  plants  instead  of  to  the  back  of  the  caterpillar 
which  the  larvae  have  destroyed  (Fig.  753). 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  the  com- 
mon forms  belonging  to  this  family  are  those 
belonging  to  the  genus  Afl/itdius(A-p\ud"i-u*). 
The  members  of  this  genus  are  minute  creat- 
ures which  infest  plant-lice.  If  colonies  of 
Aphides  be  examined,  the  dried  bodies  of 
dead  ones  may  be  found  in  which  the  abdo- 
men is  more  or  less  spherical,  being  greatly 
distended.  These  bodies  remain  clinging  to 
the  leaves  in  the  position  in  which  the  insects 
were  when  they  died.  From  each  one  there 
emerges  in  due  time  an  Apkidiiis.  The  para- 
site in  emerging  cuts  a  very 

FIG.  753 

regular  circular  lid  in  the  dor- 
sal wall  of  the  abdomen  of  its  host  (Fig.  754). 
We  have  watched  with  much  interest  these 
little  Braconids  ovipositing  in  the  bodies  of 
plant-lice.  When  one  has  selected  a  plant-  F-G.  75 

louse  in  which  to  oviposit  she  stands  with  her  head  towards 
it,  and  bending  her  abdomen  under  her  thorax  between  her 
legs  she  darts  her  ovipositor  forward  into  the  body  of  thv 
Aphis.  The  species  of  this  genus  do  not  construct  cr- 
coons,  but  undergo  their  metamorphoses  within  the  dri-^ 
skins  of  the  plant-lice. 

Family  EVANIID/E  (Ev-a-ni'i-dae). 

The  Ensign-flics. 

This  is  a  small  family,  comprising  insects  of  very  peculiai 
structure.     They  can    be  easily  distinguished    by  the    fact 


HYMENOPTERA. 


627 


that  the  abdomen  is  attached  to  the  top  of  the  metathorax, 
and  not  at  the  hind  end  of  it,  as  with  other  insects.  The 
abdomen  is  compressed,  and  has  a  very  slender  base. 

The   venation   of  the  wings  also  presents  a  striking  pe- 
culiarity.    In  other  Hymenoptera  vein  V  of  the  fore  wings 


FIG.  755.— Wings  of  A 


arises  from  some  point  on  the  cross-vein  III-VII  that  is 
nearer  to  vein  III  than  to  vein  VII,  while  in  the  Evaniidae 
the  origin  of  vein  V  is  nearer  to  vein  VII  than  to  vein  III. 


F:c.  756.— Wings  of  Fcenus. 


In  the  more  generalized  members  of  the  family,  as  Aulacus 
(Au'la-cus),  the  origin  of  vein  V  is  but  a  little  way  from  the 


628 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


middle  of  cross-vein  III-VII  (Fig.  755);  but  in  Fcenus 
(Foe'nus)  (Fig.  756)  vein  V  has  migrated  so  far  toward  the 
anal  furrow  that  it  no  longer  arises  from  the  cross-vein,  and 
cell  V  is  reduced  to  a  mere  areolet. 

These  insects  are  parasitic  ;  we  have  bred   one  species, 


FIG.  757  — £z>, 


FIG.   j5%.—Fa?iius. 


Evania  appendigaster  (E-van'i-a  ap-pen-di-gas'ter)  (Fig.  757), 
from  the  ootheca  of  a  cockroach,  and  have  found  another, 
a  species  of  Fcemis  (Foe'nus)  (Fig.  758),  common  on  flowers. 
We  have  named  these  insects  Ensign-flies,  because  they 
carry  the  abdomen  aloft  like  a  flag! 

Family  CHALCIDID^E  (Chal-cid'i-dae). 

The  CJialcis-flies. 

The  Chalcis-flies  are  among  the  smaller  of  the  parasitic 
Hymenoptera.  In  fact  they  are  usually  minute  insects, 
often  not  more  than  one  one-hundredth  of  an  inch  in  length  ; 
on  the  other  hand,  a  few  of  our  species  are  much  larger,  a 
common  one  measuring  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in  length. 
They  are  nearly  always  black,  with  strong  metallic  reflec- 


FIG.  T&.-Dilophogaster  californica.  FIG.  ^.—Aphycus  eruptor. 

tions,   although    some   species   are   yellow.       The    head   is 
usually  large  ;  the  prothorax  does  not  extend  back  on  each 


U  Y MEN  OP  TERA .  629 

side  to  the  cup-like  scale  covering  the  base  of  the  fore 
wing  ;  the  wings  have  no  closed  cells ;  and  the  ovipositor  is 
usually  hidden,  issuing  before  the  apex  of  the  abdomen. 
Figures  759  and  760  represent  Chalcis-flies  greatly  enlarged. 

It  is  to  this  family  that  the  great  majority  of  the  para- 
sites of  the  smaller  insects  belong.  Thus  scale-bugs  are 
preyed  upon  by  many  species  of  Chalcis-flies.  But  Chalcis- 
flies  also  attack  large  insects,  for  many  caterpillars  are  de- 
stroyed by  them.  The  most  efficient  parasite  of  the  cab- 
bage-butterfly is  a  Chalcis-fly,  Pteromalus  puparum  (Pte- 
rom'a-lus  pu-pa'rum).  In  the  case  of  these  larger  insects 
hundreds  of  Chalcis-flies  may  reach  maturity  within  a  single 
individual. 

The  larvae  of  Chalcis-flies  usually  feed  within  their  vic- 
tims, but  a  few  live  attached  externally.  Some  Chalcis- 
flies,  like  the  members  of  the  next  family,  are  egg-parasites, 
and  certain  others  are  developed  within  the  galls  produced 
by  members  of  other  families  (Cynipidae  and  Cecidomyidae), 
and  are  doubtless  merely  inquilines,  instead  of  parasites. 

The  members  of  one  subfamily  closely  approach  the 
gall-flies  (Cynipidae)  in  structure  and  in  habits.  One  of 
these,  the  Joint-worm,  Isosoma  hordei  (Is-o-so'ma  hor'de-i), 
is  a  well-known  pest,  which  infests  the  stalks  of  growing 
grain.  It  causes  a  woody  growth,  which  fills  up  the  cavity 
of  the  stalk,  and  sometimes  also  causes  a  joint  to  swell  and 
the  stalk  to  bend  and  lop  down.  The  presence  of  this  insect 
is  often  indicated  by  pieces  of  hardened  straw  coming  from 
the  threshing-machine  with  the  grain.  There  is  but  a  single 
generation  of  the  joint-worm  in  a  year.  The  insects  remain 
in  the  straw  during  the  winter,  the  adults  emerging  in  the 
spring.  Obviously  the  best  way  to  destroy  this  pest  is  to 
burn  the  infested  straw  before  the  insects  emerge. 

The  Chalcis-flies  of  the  genus  Leucospis  (Leu-cos'pis)  are 
very  remarkable  in  form.  They  agree  with  the  true  wasps,  and 
differ  from  all  other  Hymenoptera  in  having  the  fore  wings 
folded  like  a  fan  when  at  rest.  They  are  also  peculiar  in 


630  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

having  the  ovipositor  of  the  female  curved  up  over  the  dor- 
sum  of  the  abdomen  to  the  thorax.  Our  most  common 
species  is  Leucospis  affinis  (L.  af-fi'nis) ;  this  measures  about 
three  eighths  inch  in  length. 

Family  PROCTOTRUPID^E  (Proc-to-tru'pi-dae). 
The  Proctotrupids  (Proc-to-tru'pids). 

These  insects,  in  spite  of  their  long  family  name,  are  the 
smallest  of  the  parasitic  Hymenoptera ;  and  in  fact  the 
smallest  of  all  known  insects  belongs  to  this  family.  The 
larger  species  rarely  exceed  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in 
length  ;  the  smallest,  Alaptus  excisus  (A-lap'tus  ex-ci'sus), 
measures  between  six  and  seven  one-thousandths  of  an  inch. 
In  shape,  the  body  is  slender,  and  the 
color  is  almost  invariably  black  or 
brown  without  metallic  lustre  ;  the 
prothorax  extends  back  on  each  side 
to  the  cup-like  scale  covering  the  base 
of  the  fore  wing;  the  wings  are  often 

wanting,   and    when    present    are    en- 
FIG.  761. 

tirely  veinless,  or  they  may  approach 

the  venation  of  some  of  the  Chalcis-flies,  or  in  other  cases 
that  of  some  of  the  Braconidae  ;  the  ovipositor  issues  from 
the  apex  of  the  abdomen.  Figure  761  represents  a  Procto- 
trupid  greatly  enlarged. 

The  Proctotrupids  are  nearly  all  parasitic  ;  and  very 
many  of  them  infest  the  eggs  of  other  insects.  The  female 
Proctotrupid  bores  a  hole  with  her  ovipositor  through  the 
shell  of  an  egg  of  one  of  the  larger  insects,  and  deposits  one 
of  her  eggs  inside  of  it.  Here  the  young  parasite  when  it 
hatches  finds  itself  in  the  midst  of  food  which  is  sufficient 
for  it  till  it  is  fully  grown.  The  transformations  are  passed 
within  the  infested  egg,  from  which  the  parasite  comes  forth 
an  adult.  Other  species  are  internal  parasites  of  larvae, 
and  some  are  secondary  parasites,  that  is,  parasites  upon 


H  YMENOP  TERA .  63 1 

other  parasites.      A  few  species,  are  inquilines,    but   none 
have  been  found  to  be  injurious  to  vegetation. 

Suborder  ACULEATA  (A-cu-le-a'ta). 
The  Stinging  Hymenoptera. 

In  the  second  of  the  two  suborders  into  which  the  Hy- 
menoptera are  divided  we  find  at  the  caudal  end  of  the 
body  of  the  female  a  sting  connected  with  a  poison  gland, 
the  well-known  organ  of  offence  of  these  insects.  This  is 
really  the  same  organ  as  that  which  we  have  termed  the 
borer  in  the  first  suborder,  but  its  form  and  use  are  differ- 
ent. It  should  be  said,  however,  that  the  sting  of  insects  of 
this  suborder  is  not  a  simple  spear,  as  often  supposed,  but 
is  really  a  compound  organ  composed  of  essentially  the 
same  parts  as  the  borer  described  in  preceding  pages.  In 
some  cases  the  sting  is  imperfectly  developed  :  thus  we  find 
that  while  certain  ants  have  well-developed  stings,  others  are 
not  able  to  sting  at  all. 

In  the  Aculeata,  as  already  indicated  on  page  610,  the 
trochanter  of  the  posterior  legs  consists  of  a  single  segment 
(Fig.  737,  a,  c). 

In  the  adult  insects  of  this  suborder  the  abdomen  con- 
sists of  six  complete  segments  in  the  female,  and  seven  in  the 
male.  This  character  is  very  useful  in  separating  the  sexes 
of  these  insects.* 

Family  PELECINID^E  (Pel-e-cin'i-dae). 
The  Pelecinus  (Pel-e-ci'nus}. 

This  family  is  represented  by  a  single  species,  Pelecinus 
polyturator  (P.  pol-y-tu-ra'tor),  which  is  a  very  remarkable 
insect.  The  females  are  common  where  they  occur,  and 
are  easily  recognized  by  the  slender  and  very  long  abdomen 
(Fig.  762).  The  abdomen  of  the  male  is  club-shaped,  and 

*  No  account  is  taken  here  of  the  propodeum  (see  page  602). 


632  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

only  about  twice  the  length  of  the  head  and  thorax.  This 
sex  is  very  rare ;  it  can  be  recognized  by  the  venation  of 
the  wings,  which  is  similar  to  that  of  the  female.  Nothing 


FIG.  762. — Pelecinus poiyturator,  female. 

is  known  regarding  the  habits  of  this  species,  but  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  parasitic,  like  the  Ichneumon-flies. 

Family  CHRYSIDID^E  (Chry-sid'i-dae). 
The  Cuckoo-flies. 

The  cuckoo-flies  are  wonderfully  beautiful  creatures,  be- 
ing usually  a  brilliant  metallic  green  in  color.  The  species 
are  of  moderate  size,  the  largest  being  only  about  a  half 
inch  in  length.  They  can  be  distinguished  from  other 
Hymenoptera  by  the  form  of  the  ab- 
domen, in  which  there  are  only  three 
or  four  visible  segments  (Fig.  763), 
except  in  the  male  of  a  single  genus 
(Cleptes),  where  there  are  five.  The 
abdomen  is  convex  above  and  flat  or 
itiduia.  concave  below,  so  that  it  can  be  read- 
ily turned  under  the  thorax  and  closely  applied  to  it.  In 
this  way  a  cuckoo-fly  rolls  itself  into  a  ball  when  attacked, 
leaving  only  its  wings  exposed. 

Although  these  insects  are  handsome,  they  have  very 
ugly  morals,  resembling  those  of  the  bird  whose  name  has 
been  applied  to  them.  A  cuckoo-fly  seeks  until  it  finds  one 
of  the  digger-wasps,  or  a  solitary  true  wasp,  or  a  solitary 


HYMENOPTERA.  633 

bee,  building  a  nest,  and  when  the  owner  of  the  nest  is  off 
collecting  provisions  steals  in  and  lays  its  egg,  which  the 
unconscious  owner  walls  in  with  her  own  egg.  Sometimes 
the  cuckoo-fly  larva  eats  the  rightful  occupant  of  the  nest, 
and  sometimes  starves  it  by  eating  up  the  food  provided  for 
it.  The  bees  and  wasps  know  this  foe  very  well,  and  tender 
it  so  warm  a  reception  that  the  brilliant-coated  little  rascal 
has  reason  enough  to  double  itself  up  so  that  the  righteous 
sting  of  its  assailant  can  find  no  hole  in  its  armor.  There 
is  one  instance  on  record  where  an  outraged  wasp,  unable 
to  sting  one  of  the  cuckoo-flies  to  death,  gnawed  off  her 
wings  and  pitched  her  out  on  the  ground.  But  the  un- 
daunted invader  waited  until  the  wasp  departed  for  provi- 
sions, and  then  crawled  up  the  post  and  laid  her  egg  in  the 
nest  before  she  died. 

Some  of  the  cuckoo-flies  are  true  parasites ;  one  of  them 
infests  the  currant-worm  in  Europe.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
this  species  will  find  its  way  to  this  country. 

Superfamily  FORMICINA  (For-mi-ci'na). 
The  Ants. 

The  ants  are  easily  recognized  by  the  well-known  form 
of  the  body.  The  only  insects  that  are  liable  to  be  mis- 
taken for  ants  are  the  white-ants  or  Termites  (Termitida) 
and  the  velvet-ants  (MutilUdts).  But  the  true  ants  are 
readily  distinguished  from  these  and  other  insects  by  the 
form  of  the  abdomen.  With  the  ants  the  first  segment  of 
the  abdomen,  and  in  one  family  the  second  also,  forms  a 
lens-shaped  scale  or  knot,  varying  in  form  and 
serving  as  a  peduncle  to  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  this  region  of  the  body  (Fig.  764).  FIG.  764. 
The  winged  ants  are  also  peculiar  in  lacking  the  cup-like 
scale  or  tegula  at  the  base  of  each  fore  wing. 

If  the  statesman  or  the  philosopher  would  study  a  per- 
fect communistic  society,  let  him  throw  away  his  histories 


634  THE  STUD.Y  OF  INSECTS. 

of  poor  human  attempts,  and  go  and  study  thoroughly  the 
nearest  ant-hill.  There  he  will  find  no  love  for  friend  or 
wife  or  child,  but  a  love  for  everyone.  There  everything  is 
done  for  the  good  of  the  whole,  and  nothing  for  the  indi- 
vidual. The  state  makes  wars,  provides  food  for  all,  cares 
for  the  children,  owns  all  the  property.  He  will  find  no 
complaint  against  the  existing  condition  of  society,  no 
rebels;  but  the  fate  of  each  one  is  determined  by  the  acci- 
dent of  birth,  and  each  takes  up  its  work  without  a  murmur. 
He  will  find  that  this  perfect  commune  has  developed 
courage,  patriotism,  loyalty,  and  never-failing  industry ;  but 
he  will  find  also  that  war,  pillage,  slavery,  and  an  utter  dis- 
regard of  the  rights  of  other  communities  and  individuals 
are  as  prevalent  as  they  are  among  our  own  nations,  where 
selfish  private  ambition  has  held  sway  so  long. 

There  are  always  three  classes  of  ants  in  a  colony  :  males, 
females,  and  workers.  The  males  and  the  females  are  winged, 
the  workers  wingless.  Often  in  warm  summer  afternoons 
the  air  will  seem  to  be  filled  with  countless  thousands  of 
flying  ants.  Their  moving  wings  divide  the  sun's  rays  into 
rainbow  flashes  as  they  rise  or  fall,  a  silent,  onward-moving 
host.  This  is  the  wedding-journey  of  the  male  and  female 
ants,  which  have  come  from  many  communities  and  have 
taken  flight  together.  But  soon  the  journey  is  over  and 
they  drop  to  earth,  where  the  males  soon  die ;  but  the 
females  tear  off  their  own  wings,  having  no  further  use  for 
them,  and  set  about  to  find  places  to  lay  their  eggs.  Some- 
times a  female  starts  a  new  colony;  in  other  cases  she  is 
found  by  some  workers  of  her  own  species  and  adopted  as 
their  queen. 

Comparatively  little  is  known  regarding  the  formation  of 
new  colonies  of  ants.  It  has  been  a  question  whether  a 
colony  is  founded  by  a  single  queen  working  alone,  as  with 
the  bumblebees  and  social  wasps ;  or  whether  a  queen  asso- 
ciates a  number  of  workers  with  herself  and  they  together 
found  the  colony,  as  with  the  Honey-bee.  The  writer  has 


HYMENOPTERA.  63$ 

demonstrated  by  repeated  experiments  that  in  the  case  of 
our  common  carpenter-ant  (Camponotus  pennsylvanicus)  the 
former  method  is  practised.  But  it  is  not  improbable  that 
with  certain  other  species  the  latter  method  occurs. 

On  many  occasions  we  have  found  a  queen  of  the  car- 
penter-ant in  a  small  cleared  space  beneath  the  bark  of  a 
dead  tree  or  log.  Some  of  these  queens  were  alone  ;  others 
were  accompanied  either  by  eggs,  larvae,  or  by  small  workers, 
On  one  occasion  we  collected  several  such  queens  and  placed 
each  with  her  eggs  in  a  cell  between  plates  of  glass  in  an 
artificial  ant's  nest,  and  have  thus  watched  the  beginnings 
of  colonies.  A  few  eggs,  from  ten  to  fifteen,  are  laid  at 
first ;  these  soon  hatch,  and  the  larvae  develop  quite  rapidly. 
A  nest  which  on  July  I5th  contained,  besides  the  queen, 
only  seven  eggs,  contained  July  2/th  thirteen  eggs,  three 
larvae,  and  one  cocoon  ;  and  on  Aug.  I4th  there  were  six 
cocoons.  In  another  nest,  which  on  July  I5th  contained, 
besides  the  queen,  only  young  larvae,  the  larvae  began  to 
spin  cocoons  on  July.  iQth,  and  on  Aug.  8th  the  workers 
began  to  emerge.  On  Aug.  i6th  the  workers  had  begun  to 
work,  carrying  the  empty  cocoons  out  of  the  nest,  and  on 
Aug.  2Oth  the  workers  began  to  take  into  the  nest  dead  flies 
that  had  been  placed  at  the  entrance. 

The  most  remarkable  result  of  this  experiment  was  the 
demonstration  of  the  fact  that  from  the  time  the  queen  forms 
her  cell  and  begins  to  lay  eggs  to  the  time  when  a  brood  of 
workers  is  matured  no  food  is  taken  into  the  nest.  The  cell 
is  a  closed  one,  and  contains  no  store  of  food  except  what 
may  be  within  the  body  of  the  queen.  The  queen  does  not 
leave  the  nest  ;  and  when  we  placed  food  within  a  nest  the 
queen  built  a  wall  of  earth  about  it,  thus  walling  it  out. 

To  test  this  matter  a  queen  was  placed  with  some  of  her 
eggs  in  an  empty  vial,  and  Swiss  muslin  was  tied  over  the 
mouth  of  it.  Here,  where  the  queen  could  not  possibly 
obtain  food,  the  larvae  matured,  spun  cocoons,  and  adult 
workers  emerged.  The  queen  was  often  seen  to  apparently 


636  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

lick  the  workers,  and  the  conclusion  was  forced  upon  us 
that  there  was  stored  up  within  the  stomach  of  the  queen  a 
supply  of  food,  which  was  regurgitated  and  fed  to  the  larvae. 
It  should  be  noted  that  this  first  brood  of  workers  consists 
of  very  small  individuals,  of  the  type  known  as  worker- 
minor. 

The  term  queen,  as  applied  to  the  individual  at  the  head 
of  a  colony  of  ants,  is  a  misnomer,  for  among  social  insects 
the  queens  do  not  rule  ;  they  are  merely  the  mothers  of 
their  colonies.  The  queen  ant  is  not  jealous,  like  the  queen 
bee,  but  may  live  in  peace  in  the  same  dwelling  with  several 
other  queens.  She  is  always  an  object  of  extreme  devotion 
to  her  attendants,  who  feed  her  and  care  for  her  eggs  as  soon 
as  she  lays  them. 

The  larvae  of  ants  are  white  and  legless ;  most  species 
spin  cocoons  when  ready  to  pupate,  but  some  do  not.  The 
oblong,  egg-shaped  bodies,  which  may  be  seen  in  any  ant's 
nest,  and  which  are  often  mistaken  by  the  careless  observer 
for  eggs,  are  these  cocoons.  The  eggs  are  so  small  that 
they  escape  observation  unless  careful  search  is  made  for 
them.  The  larvae  are  efficiently  cared  for  by  the  workers, 
who  carry  them  about  and  put  them  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  nest  and  feed  them.  When  the  adults  issue  from  the 
cocoons  their  nurses  help  them  out  carefully  ;  and  they  un- 
fold the  legs  and  smooth  out  the  wings  of  new-fledged  roy- 
alty with  tenderest  solicitude.  The  workers  are  by  far  the 
most  interesting  portion  of  the  ant  colony,  as  they  do  all 
the  work,  feed  the  colony,  build  and  defend  the  nests,  care 
for  the  young  and  for  the  stock,  and  carry  on  the  wars. 
The  workers  are  undeveloped  females,  which  very  rarely  lay 
eggs>  a"d  as  the  eggs  of  workers  always  develop  into  males, 
the  presence  of  a  queen  is  necessary  for  the  perpetuation  of 
the  life  of  a  colony.  For  this  reason,  as  the  queens  grow  old 
the  workers  find  young  queens  at  the  swarming  season, 
bring  them  into  their  nests,  and  adopt  them  as  successors  to 
the  old  queens. 


HYMENOPTERA,  637 

There  are  many  forms  of  ants'  nests,  but  each  species 
builds  the  same  sort.  Sometimes  the  nest  is  a  simple  tun- 
nel in  the  earth,  sometimes  a  large  mound  with  tunnels  and 
galleries  extending  many  feet  under  ground ;  and  some 
species  live  in  decayed  trees.  In  the  tropics  a  greater  variety 
of  these  structures  occur  than  in  our  country.  Some 
colonies  own  several  mounds.  One  colony  of  one  species 
has  been  known  to  have  two  hundred  mounds,  covering 
several  hundred  square  yards.  Ants  are  also  very  good 
road-makers,  sometimes  making  clean,  beaten  paths,  and 
sometimes  working  out  covered  ways  under  rubbish. 

As  to  their  food,  ants  are  general  feeders,  eating  animal 
food  and  also  sweet  substances,  like  the  juice  of  fruit  and 
sugar :  and  they  are  also  very  fond  of  the  honey-dew  given 
off  by  Aphids;  and  the  ants  regard  these  Aphids  as  their 
milch-cows.  An  ant  will  walk  up  to  an  Aphid  and  stroke  its 
back  with  its  antennae,  and  immediately  the  pleased  Aphid 
gives  forth  a  drop  of  sweet  fluid,  which  the  ant  at  once 
drinks  up.  The  ants  take  very  good  care  of  their  cattle, 
and  will  carry  them  to  new  pastures  if  the  old  ones  dry  up. 
They  also  carry  the  Aphid-eggs  into  their  nests,  and  keep 
them  sheltered  during  the  winter,  and  then  carry  the  young 
plant-lice  out  and  put  them  on  plants  in  the  spring.  When 
ants  are  seen  going  up  and  down  the  trunks  of  trees  it 
is  safe  to  suppose  they  are  attending  Aphids.  They  also 
care  similarly  for  some  of  the  Coccids  (especially  some 
Lecaniums)  and  a  few  other  honey-giving  insects  (Tree- 
hoppers  and  others). 

Many  species  of  beetles  are  also  found  in  ants'  nests,  but 
the  ants  have  never  revealed  to  us  why  these  insects  are 
allowed  to  dwell  in  peace  in  their  habitations. 

We  have  many  evidences  that  ants  think,  but  what  goes 
on  in  their  minds  we  can  only  guess.  They  have  a  language 
that  seems  to  exist  through  the  sense  of  touch.  The  an- 
tennae are  most  sensitive  organs,  and  when  ants  meet  they 
cross  their  antennas  and  pat  each  other.  If  one  finds  some 


638  THE  STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

large  article  of  food,  too  heavy  for  it  to  carry,  it  goes  for 
aid,  and  the  first  fellow  it  meets  it  pats  with  its  antennae, 
and  the  two  start  off  together  for  the  booty.  If  a  nest  is 
attacked  the  workers  or  soldiers  rush  around  and  stroke  each 
other  with  their  antennae,  and  thus  evidently  give  warning 
and  plan  a  battle  for  protection.  In  case  an  ant  finds  a 
comrade  in  distress  it  shows  great  solicitude  and  activity  in 
giving  relief.  Yet  there  are  some  species  that,  like  the 
Spartans,  kill  off  the  feeble  and  old,  as  useless  to  the  colony. 
When  a  portion  of  a  colony  is  removed  and  kept  imprisoned 
for  a  time,  and  then  returned,  there  is  great  rejoicing  on 
both  sides.  Gould  says  they  have  a  way  of  standing  on 
their  hind  legs  and  prancing  around  under  such  circum- 
stances, as  well  as  when  they  enter  the  cell  of  their  queen, 
that  indicates  great  joy.  Sometimes  they  get  to  be  very 
hilarious  and  wrestle  with  each  other,  and  carry  each  other 
around  as  if  it  were  a  part  of  a  game  that  they  found  amus- 
ing— a  sort  of  formic  football. 

But  it  is  in  their  wars  that  the  ants  show  that  they  are 
trained  athletes.  They  do  most  of  their  fighting  with  their 
jaws,  but  they  also  eject  upon  each  other  an  acrid  fluid  called 
formic  acid.  They  are  very  courageous,  and  will  attack  a 
man  as  readily  as  a  grasshopper.  They  seem  in  a  great  rage 
when  they  fight,  and  are  fierce  beyond  belief.  After  a 
battle  the  field  is  strewn  with  legs,  heads,  and  bodies.  They 
usually  wage  war  against  other  species,  but  sometimes  two 
colonies  of  the  same  species  will  go  to  war  if  their  nests 
happen  to  encroach  upon  each  other.  When  an  army  is 
ready  to  go  forth  for  conquest,  scouts  are  sent  out  and  the 
army  waits  till  they  return  before  it  starts.  Very  often 
these  armies  go  forth  to  capture  slaves,  for  there  are  several 
species  of  ants  that  are  slaveholders,  and  by  strange  coin- 
cidence the  slaves  are  dark  colored,  while  the  masters  are 
light.  When  a  depredating  army  sets  forth  it  proceeds  to 
the  black  colony,  which  defends  itself  fiercely  ;  if  the  be- 
sieged blacks  are  overcome,  the  conquerors  carry  off  all  the 


H  Y MEN  OP  TERA .  639 

larvae  and  pupae  to  their  own  nests,  and  bring  them  up  with 
their  own,  and  they  in  turn  work  hard  for  their  captors,  and 
take  great  interest  in  their  welfare  and  success.  When  a 
party  of  marauders  comes  back  without  any  booty  their 
slaves  give  them  a  cold  reception ;  but  if  they  come  back- 
laden  with  plenty  of  larvae  and  pupae,  the  slaves  rush  out 
and  meet  them  with  apparent  delight  and  exultation. 

Some  species  of  slaveholders  (e.g.,  Formica  difficilis) 
work  side  by  side  with  their  slaves.  However,  in  one  species 
(Polyergus  ruffscens  of  Europe)  the  masters  have  depended 
upon  their  slaves  so  long  that  they  cannot  build  their  own 
nests  or  feed  themselves  or  care  for  their  young,  but  have 
only  retained  the  power  of  fighting  to  get  more  slaves. 
Hiiber  tells  of  placing  several  of  these  slaveholders  by 
themselves,  where  nearly  all  helplessly  starved,  although 
there  was  plenty  of  food  all  around  them.  Then  a  slave  was 
introduced,  which  at  once  set  to  work  and  made  a  nest  and 
fed  those  still  alive,  thus  saving  from  death  its  stupid 
masters. 

The  classification  of  the  ants  is  still  in  a  very  imperfect 
state.  Many  of  our  common  species  are  still  undescribed, 
and  the  limits  of  the  families  have  not  yet  been  determined. 
But,  if  we  except  a  few  species  found  in  Texas  and  Utah, 
our  described  species  represent  only  three  families.  These 
can  be  separated  by  the  following  table :  — 

TABLE  OF   FAMILIES  OF  THE  FORMICINA. 

A.  Peduncle  of  the  abdomen  consisting  of  a  single  segment. 

B.  Abdomen  not  constricted  between  the  second  and  third  seg- 
ments (the  first  segment  forms  the  peduncle),  p.  64o..FoRMiciD/E. 
BB.  Abdomen  constricted  between  the  second  and  third  segments. 

p.  642 PONERID.E. 

AA.  Peduncle  of  the  abdomen  consisting  of  two  segments,     p.  642. 

MYRMICIDJE. 


V 


640  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Family  FORMICID^E  (For-mic'i-dse). 
The  Typical  Ants. 

The  ants  of  this  family  can  be  recognized  by  the  follow- 
ing characteristics :  the  pe- 
duncle of  the  abdomen  con- 
sists of  a  single  segment ; 
there  is  no  constriction  be- 
tween the  second  and  third 
abdominal  segments  (Fig. 

76S.-A  Formicid.  7^>S)  >  anc^  *ne  queens  and 

workers  have  no  sting.  The  pupae  are  sometimes  contained 
in  a  cocoon  and  are  sometimes  naked.  The  following  are 
some  of  our  more  common  species : 

The  Carpenter-ant,  Camponotus  pennsylvanicus  (Cam-po- 
no'tus  penn-syl-va'ni-cus). — This  is  one  of  the  largest  of  our 
common  ants.  Its  entire  body  is  black.  It  builds  its  nests 
in  the  timbers  of  buildings,  in  logs,  and  in  the  trunks  of 
trees.  Frequently  they  build  in  the  dead  interior  of  a  liv- 
ing tree,  excavating  a  complicated  series  of  chambers.  The 
way  in  which  new  colonies  of  this  ant  are  founded  is  de- 
scribed on  page  635. 

The  Mound-building  Ant,  Formica  exsectoides  (For'mi-ca 
ex-sec-toi'des). — This  species  is  the  builder  of  our  largest  ant- 
hills ;  these  are  often  five  or  six  feet  across,  and  sometimes 
more  than  twice  that  in  diameter.  The  head  and  thorax  of 
this  ant  are  rust-red,  while  the  legs  and  abdomen  are  black- 
ish brown.  This  species  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  same 
as  the  European  Wood-ant,  Formica  rnfa,  and  is  referred  to 
in  many  books  under  that  name. 

The  Slavemaker-ant,  Formica  difficilis  (F.  dif-fic'i-lis). — 
One  of  our  common  slave-making  ants  is  this  species.  It 
very  closely  resembles  the  preceding  in  size  and  in  color; 
in  fact  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  two  apart  without  the 
use  of  a  microscope.  The  Slavemaker-ant  usually  makes 
its  nest  almost  entirely  underground.  We  often  find  these 


HYMENOPTERA.  641 

nests  beneath  large  flat  stones.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  in 
a  single  nest  some  of  the  pupae  will  be  enclosed  in  cocoons 
while  others  are  naked.  This  ant  is  not  always  accompanied 
by  slaves ;  but  it  is  a  common  occurrence  to  find  its  dark- 
colored  associate  with  it.  The  way  in  which  this  ant  gets  its 
slaves  has  been  described  above  (p.  638). 

The  Slave-ant,  Formica  subsericea  (F.  sub-se-ric'e-a). — 
This  is  usually  a  dark-brown  or  ash-colored  ant  with  reddish 
legs,  but  it  varies  greatly  in  color.  It  generally  makes  its 
nest  in  the  ground,  beneath  a  stone  or  other  object,  and 
leads  an  independent  life  when  allowed  to  do  so.  But  it  is 
this  species  that  Formica  difficilis  enslaves. 

The  Corn-louse  Ant,  Lasius  brunneus  (Las'i-us  brun'ne- 
us). — This  is  the  common,  brown,  small  ant,  about  one  eighth 
inch  in  length,  whose  nests  abound  along  the  borders  of 
roads,  in  pastures,  and  in  meadows.  It  is  an  exceedingly 
interesting  species  on  account  of  the  care  it  is  known  to 
take  of  certain  plant-lice  that  feed  upon  the  roots  of  grass 
and  of  grain.  One  of  these  plant-lice  feeds  on  the  roots  of 
corn,  and  is  a  very  serious  pest  in  the  middle  West.  It  has 
been  discovered  that  this  ant  cares  for  the  eggs  of  this  plant- 
louse,  keeping  them  in  its  nest  during  the  winter,  thus 
making  sure  of  having  a  herd  of  Aphids  from  which  it  can 
get  a  supply  of  honey-dew  the  following  summer;; 

The  marriage  flights  of  the  ants  of  the  genus  Lasius  are 
remarkable.  The  nests  of  these  ants  are  so  inconspicuous 
that  they  are  rarely  observed  except  when  search^  is  made 
for  them.  But  the  males  and  young  queens  from  all  the 
nests  in  one  region  will  emerge  at  one  time,  usually  some 
warm  afternoon,  and,  where  a  short  time  before)  no  ants 
could  be  seen,  the  air  becomes  filled  with  these  flying  crea- 
tures. We  have  ridden  for  several  miles  through  such  a 
swarm,  when  the  ants  were  so  abundant  that  it  w4s  almost 
impossible  to  breathe  without  inhaling  them.  The\ants  that 
make  up  these  swarms  are  very  different  from  the  workers 
that  we  find  in  the  nests.  Both  the  young  queens  and  the 


642  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

males  are  winged,  and  the  queens  are  much  larger  than 
either  the  workers  or  males. 

The  Honey-ant,  Myrmecocystus  melliger  (Myr-mec-o-cys'- 
tus   mel'li-ger). — This   ant    exhibits   a   striking  peculiarity. 
One  form  of  the  workers  has  its  abdomen 
enlarged  to  the  size  of  a  currant  and  filled 
with  honey  (Fig.  766).     This  species  lives  in 
high  altitudes  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
FIG.  766.  our  countr>,  and  builds  nests  in  the  form 

of  little  mounds.  The  ho^'ey-bearing  individuals  are  found 
clinging  to  the  roofs  of  th-Hr  chambers,  and  are  merely  storing 
vats  for  a  sort  of  honey  '/hich  the  other  workers  collect  from 
galls  that  grow  on  oaV-trees  and  feed  to  them.  When  the 
season  for  obtaining  this  food  is  past,  these  living  cells 
disgorge  their  supj  iy  through  their  mouths  for  the  use  of 
their  hungry  felloes. 

Family  PONERID^E  (Po-ner'i-dae). 
The  Ponerids  (Po-ne1  rids). 

The  ants  bf  this  family  resemble  those  of  the  preceding 
family  in  th  at  the  peduncle  of  the  abdomen  consists  of  a 
single  segment,  but  differ  in  having  the  abdomen  con- 
stricted between  the  second  and  third 
abdominal  segments  (Fig.  767),  and  in 
the  posse  sion  of  a  sting  by  the  queens  FW.^.-A  Ponerid. 
and  work  i'rs.  The  pupa  state  is  passed  within  the  cocoon. 
But  few  <  pecies  belonging  to  this  family  have  been  described 
in  this  country,  and  most  of  them  are  rare.  Their  favorite 
nesting-p  lace  is  beneath  stones. 

Family  MYRMICID^;  (Myr-mic'i-dae). 
The  Myrmicids  (Myr-mi  'cids). 

The  ants  of  this  family  are  easily  recognized  by  the  fact 
that  with  them  the  peduncle  of  the  abdomen  consists  of  two 


HYMENOPTERA.  643 

segments  (Fig.  768).     The  queens  and  workers  are  armed 
with  a  sting,  and    the  pupae   are 
naked.     The  following  will  serve 
to  illustrate  this  family  : 

The  Red-ant,  Monomoriu m  phar- 
aonis  (M  o  n  -o-mo'ri-um  phar-a- 
o'nis). — The  most  troublesome  of 
all  ants  that  live  in  this  country 
is  a  minute  yellow  species  that  PS£t£*SStSfifi  S 

frequently      invades      houses.       Al-      ^  front  leg,  enlarged. 

though  this  species  is  light  yellow  in  color,  it  is  commonly 
known  as  the  Red-ant.  When  these  ants  build  their  nests 
within  the  walls  or  beneath  the  foundations  of  a  house  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  dislodge  them.  By  trapping  and  de- 
stroying the  workers  their  numbers  can  be  lessened  some- 
what. But  so  long  as  the  queens  are  undisturbed  in  their 
nests  the  supply  of  workers  will  continue. 

The  Shed-builder  Ant,  Cremastogaster  lineolata  (Cre-mas- 
to-gas'ter  lin-e-o-la'ta).— This  is  a  small  ant,  the  workers 
measuring  from  one  eighth  to  three  sixteenths  inch  in  length. 
It  is  usually  yellowish  brown,  with  a  black  abdomen  ;  but  it 
varies  greatly  in  color.  Its  favorite  nesting-place  is  under 
stones  or  underneath  and  within  the  decayed  matter  of  old 
logs  and  stumps.  Out  of  this  material  the  ants  sometimes 
make  a  paper-like  pulp  with  which  they  build  a  nest  attaches 
to  the  side  of  a  log,  or  even  to  the  branches  of  a  shrub  at  som 
distance  from  the  ground.  Professor  Atkinson  descri 
such  a  nest,*  which  was  built  several  feet  from  the  groi  , 
on  a  bush,  and  was  eighteen  inches  long  and  twelve  in«  is 
in  circumference ;  it  contained  about  one  fourth  pin  of 
adults,  pupae,  and  larvae,  and  was  doubtless  the  horr  of 
the  colony.  But  these  ants  often  build  small  she*  at 
some  distance  from  the  nest,  over  the  herds  of  Aphi  ;  or 
scale-insects  from  which  they  obtain  honey-dew.  In  hese 

*American  Naturalist,  Aug.  1887. 


644  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

cases  the  Aphids  or  scale-insects  are  huddled  together  on  a 
branch,  from  which  they  are  deriving  their  nourishment,  and 
are  completely  covered  by  the  "  cow-shed  "  built  by  the  ants. 

Superfamily  SPHECINA  (Sphe-ci'na). 
The  Fossores  (Fos-so'res)  or  Digger-wasps. 

There  are  several  closely  allied  families  of  the  Hymenop- 
tera  that  are  usually  classed  together  as  the  Fossores  or 
Digger-wasps.  These  names  refer  to  the  fact  that  most 
of  these  insects  make  nests  for  their  young  by  digging 
burrows  in  the  ground  or  in  wood.  Many  true  wasps  and 
bees  have  similar  habits,  but  these  insects  differ  in  appear- 
ance from  the  Fossores  in  the  following  easily  seen  charac- 
teristics :  The  true  wasps  when  at  rest  have  their  wings 
folded  like  fans,  while  the  digger-wasps  have  their  wings 
lying  flat  above  the  body.  The  bees  have  the  basal  segment 
of  the  tarsi  of  the  hind  legs  flattened  for  carrying  pollen, 
while  the  digger-wasps  have  legs  fitted  only  for  digging  and 
walking. 

The  Fossores  are  all  solitary  in  their  habits,  that  is,  each 
female  makes  provision  for  her  young.  The  adults  are  very 
fond  of  the  warm  sunshine,  and  may  be  seen  flitting  about 
flowers  in  the  tropical  heat  of  the  noontide.  As  in  most 
Hymenoptera,  the  male  dies  early,  leaving  the  entire  work 
of  the  nest-building  and  family  cares  to  the  female  ;  however, 
*he  seems  entirely  equal  to  her  responsibilities.  She  burrows 

the  ground  or  in  wood,  or  utilizes  the  forsaken  burrows 
o/%ther  species,  or  builds  in  the  ready-made  cavities  of 
re-  :|  or  straws,  or  constructs  a  tube  out  of  mud.  The  nest 
thi  ^rnade  is  provisioned  with  spiders  or  with  insects,  which 
are  not  killed,  but  stung  until  paralyzed.  The  prey  thus 
trea  ;^d  remains  alive  a  long  time,  but  is  helpless.  The  egg 
is  la  ,^with  this  provision,  and  then  the  opening  of  the  tube 
scale  up  securely.  When  the  larva  hatches  it  finds  nicely 
prese  yed  food  right  at  hand  sufficient  to  nourish  it  during 
its  grc  wth. 


HYMENOPTERA.  645 

As  a  rule,  each  species  provisions  its  nest  with  a  particular 
kind  of  food.  Some  use  only  spiders  for  this  purpose,  some 
plant-lice,  some  caterpillars  ;  and  so  on  through  the  list. 

Very  interesting  and  useful  work  can  be  done  by  the 
student  in  the  study  of  the  habits  of  the  digger-wasps  and 
of  the  solitary  true  wasps  and  solitary  bees.  Comparatively 
few  nests  of  either  of  these  groups  of  insects  have  been 
carefully  described  in  this  country ;  and  as  each  species 
presents  peculiarities  of  habits,  the  study  is  a  very  fascinat- 
ing one. 

The  nests  are  most  abundant  in  sandy  banks  and  in  the 
pith  of  sumach,  elder,  brambles,  and  other  plants.  Some 
nests  are  dug  in  the  earth  in  level  places,  and  many  are  built 
of  mud  and  attached  to  the  lower  surface  of  stones  or  be- 
neath the  roofs  of  buildings. 

The  nests  made  of  mud  should  be  carefully  removed  so 
as  not  to  break  them,  the  nature  of  the  provisions  noted, 
and  the  nest  placed  in  a  cage  to  breed  the  adult.  When 
the  adult  has  been  obtained,  both  nest  and  insect  should  be 
mounted  and  placed  in  a  collection. 

In  many  cases  the  cells  of  mining  species  can  be  re- 
moved from  the  earth  and  the  insects  bred  in  a  similar  way. 
But  the  easiest  nests  to  study  are  those  made  in  the  pith  of 
plants.  If  dead  branches  of  sumach  or  elder  be  split  open 
many  of  these  insects  can  be  found.  If  the  branch  be  split 
carefully  the  peculiarities  of  the  nest  can  be  observed  with- 
out injury  to  its  occupants.  Then  if  the  pieces  of  the  branch 
be  tied  together  the  adult  insects  can  be  bred  by  placing  the 
nest  in  a  glass  jar  or  other  cage,  or  in  a  bag  of  muslin,  if  the 
branch  is  a  long  one. 

If  a  nest  is  provisioned  with  a  paste  made  of  pollen  and 
nectar,  it  is  a  nest  of  a  bee ;  but  if  it  is  provisioned  with 
spiders  or  insects,  it  belongs  either  to  a  digger-wasp  or  to  a 
solitary  true  wasp.  We  know  of  no  way  of  distinguishing 
between  the  nests  of  the  last  two  except  by  breeding  thf 
adults. 


646  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

In  breeding  these  insects  from  their  nests  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  mistake  cuckoo-flies  or  other  guest-insects  or 
parasites  for  the  rightful  owners  of  the  nests.  The  fact  that 
members  of  each  of  these  classes  of  insects  are  common  in 
these  nests  adds  both  to  the  complexity  and  interest  of  the 
study. 

The  digger-wasps  found  in  America  north  of  Mexico 
represent  fourteen  families.  These  can  be  separated  by 
the  following  table : 


TABLE   FOR   DETERMINING   THE  FAMILIES   OF  THE 
SPHECINA.* 

A.  Pronotum  considerably  produced  backward  on  the  sides  reaching 
the  tegulae  in  the  winged  forms  ;  in  one  family  the  females  are 
wingless. 

B.  Abdomen  with  the  first  ventral  abdominal  segment  distinctly 
separated  from  the  second  by  a  constriction  (Figs.  769,  770). 
C.   Intermediate  tibiae  with  two  apical  spurs;  the   intermediate 
coxae   contiguous,  or  but  little  separated  ;  females  wingless. 

p.  648 MUTILLIDJE. 

CC.  Intermediate  tibiae  usually  with  a  single  apical  spur,  very 
rarely  with  two ;  intermediate  coxae,  as  a  rule,  widely  sepa- 
rated ;  both  sexes  winged,  p.  649 SCOLIID^E. 

BB.  First  and  second  ventral  abdominal  segments  not  separated 
by  a  constriction. 
C.  Hind  legs  short,  the  tib.iae  not  reaching  to  the  apex  of  the 

abdomen,    p.  649  SAPYGID^. 

CC.  Hind  legs  long,  the  tibiae  reaching  beyond  the  apex  of  the 

abdomen,    p.  650 POMPILIDJE. 

AA.  Prothorax  usually  consisting  of  little  more  than  a  narrow 
collar,  the  posterior  angles  not  reaching  the  tegulae  ;  both  sexes 
winged  in  all  species. 

B.  Fore  wings  with  three  closed   submarginal  cells,  (Fig.  773,  2d 
III,  III.,  III«). 
C.  Base  of  abdomen  with  a  long  slender  portion  (petiolate). 

*  This  table  is  based  on  one  given  by  Mr.  Cresson  in  his  Synopsis  of  the 
Hymenoptera  of  America  north  of  Mexico,  Philadelphia,  Am.  Ent.  Soc., 
.1887. 


HYMENOPTERA.  64? 

D.  Vein  V3  arising  at  or  beyond  the  end  of  the  2d  cell  III  (Fig. 

773)-* 

E.  Petiole  of  abdomen  cylindrical,  smooth  ;  antennae  slender 
at  apex  ;  tibiae  of  middle  legs  with..***  apical  spurs,  p.  650. 

SPHECIDjE. 

EE.  Petiole  of  abdomen  depressed  and  generally  furrowed 
above  ;  antennae  thickened  at  apex;  middle  tibiae  with  one 

apical  spur.     p.  655 MIMESID^E. 

DD.  Vein  V3  arising  before  the  end  of  the  2d  cell  III. 

MELLINID^E.f 

CC.  Base  of  abdomen  without  a  long,  slender  portion  (not 
petiolate). 

D.  Veins  V3  and  V»  arising  from  the  second  submarginal  cell 
(III*)  (Fig.  775);  sometimes  vein  V»  arises  from  the  end  of 
cell  III.. 

E.  Fore  wings  with  an  appendiculate  cell  (Fig.  775,  ap.} ; 
mandibles  usually  more  or  less  deeply  notched  on  the  ex- 
terior margin,  p.  652 LARRID^E. 

EE.  Appendiculate  cell  wanting;   mandibles  with  the  ex- 
terior margin  entire. 
F.  Labrum  short,  projecting  but  little,  if  at  all.     p.  654. 

NYSSONID^E. 
FF.  Labrum  distinctly  exserted,  sometimes  forming  a  long 

triangular  beak  (Figs.  776, 777)  652 BEMBECID^E. 

DD.  Vein  Va  arising  from  cell  III*  and  vein  V3  from  cell  Ills 

(Fig.  779).    p.  654 PHILANTHIDJE. 

BB.  Fore  wings  with  two  closed  submarginal  cells  (Fig.  781,  2d 
III  +  III.  and  III4). 

C.  Prothorax  long  and  narrow,  produced  anteriorly  into  a  neck. 
(As  this  family  includes  only  a  single  American  species,  and 
that  a  very  rare  one,  it  is  not  discussed  in  this  work.) 

AMPULICID.*. 

CC.  Prothorax  short,  transverse,    p.  655 PEMPHREDONID.*. 

BBB.  Fore  wings  with  only  one  closed  submarginal  cell  (Fig.  783, 
2d  III  +  Ills),    p.  656 CRABRONID^E. 

*  Vein  V>  is  the  vein  between  cells  V  and  ist  Va ,  and  between  cells  Vs 
and  ist  Vj.  In  the  species  represented  in  Figure  773  it  arises  near  the  middle 
of  cell  Ills  and  extends  backward  for  more  than  half  its  length. 

f  This  family  includes  only  two  species  found  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  and  a  single,  very  rare,  one  found  in  the  Eastern  States.  It  is  no' 
discussed  in  this  work. 


648  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Family  MUTILLID^  (Mu-til'li-dae). 
The  Velvet-ants, 

These  handsome  insects  resemble  ants  in  the  general 
form  of  the  body,  but  lack  the  scale-like  knot  of  the  pedun- 
cle of  the  abdomen  characteristic  of  those  insects,  although 
there  is  a  constriction  between  the  first  and  second  abdomi- 
nal segments  (Fig.  769).  The  body  is  densely 
covered  with  hair,  which  gives  the  insects  the 
appearance  of  being  clothed  in  velvet ;  and  as 
FIG.  769.  the  body  is  usually  ringed  with  two  or.  more 
strongly  contrasting  colors,  they  are  very  conspicuous.  The 
colors  most  commonly  worn  by  the  velvet-ants  are  black 
and  scarlet.  The  males  are  winged  and  frequent  flowers. 
The  females  are  wingless ;  but  they  run  very  fast,  and  can 
sting  severely. 

These  insects  are  abundant  in  the  warmer  portions  of 
our  country ;  our  lists  now  include  one  hundred  and  sixty 
North  American  species.  The  largest  of  these  and  a  very 
common  species  is  Sphcerophthalma  occidentalis  (Sphaer-oph- 
thal'ma  oc-ci-den-ta'lis).  This  species  measures  from  two- 
thirds  of  an  inch  to  a  little  more  than  an  inch  in  length  ;  it 
varies  in  color,  but  is  usually  black  and  scarlet.  It  is  known 
to  dig  burrows  in  beaten  paths  and  store  in  them  flies  and 
other  insects.  It  will  also  enter  bee-hives  and  kill  and  eat 
bees.  In  Texas  it  is  known  as  the  Cow-killer  ant,  because 
of  a  popular  superstition  that  its  sting  is  very  dangerous  to 
live  stock. 

Several  exotic  species  of  Mutilla  live  in  nests  of  bumble 
bees ;  but  whether  they  exist  there  as  parasites  or  as  inqui- 
lines  has  not  been  determined.  Species  of  Mutilla  have  also 
been  bred  from  nests  of  other  digger-wasps,  and  from  those 
of  certain  true  wasps. 


H  YMENOP  TERA .  649 

Family  SCOLIID^E  (Sco-li'i-dae). 
The  Scoliids  (Sco'li-ids). 

The  Scoliids  are  quite  closely  related  to  the  preceding 
family  but  differ  in  their  general  appearance,  resembling 
wasps  rather  than  ants.  In  their  habits  they  do  not  exhibit 
as  much  intelligence  as  do  most  digger-wasps,  for  although 
they  make  burrows  in  the  earth,  it  is  said  that  they  do  not 
have  the  power  of  building  nests  and  transporting  prey  to 
them  for  their  carnivorous  larvae.  Instead  of  this,  they  dig 
in  the  ground  in  order  to  find  larvae  that  have  buried  them- 
selves to  undergo  their  transformations ;  and  lay  their  eggs 
upon  such  larvae.  These  insects  occur  in  sunny,  hot,  and 
sandy  places  ;  more  than  forty  American  species  are  known. 

One  of  our  most  common  species  is  Tiphia  inornata 
(Tiph'i-a  in-or-na'ta) ;  this  is  a  shining  black  species,  and 
measures  three  fifths  of  an  inch  in  length 
(Fig.  770).  It  is  parasitic  upon  white  grubs, 
the  larvae  of  May-beetles.  Elis  quadrinotata 
(E'lis  quad-ri-no-ta'ta)  is  a  magnificent  spe-  FIG.  77o. 

cies  common  in  the  South.  It  is  black,  with  four  yellow 
spots  on  the  abdomen,  and  measures  nearly  or  quite  one  and 
one  fourth  inches  in  length. 

Family  SAPYGID.E  (Sa-pyg'i-dae). 
The  Sapygids  (Sa-py'gids\ 

This  is  a  small  family  including  only  two  North  Ameri- 
can genera,  and  but  little  more  than  twenty  species.  These 
insects  are  of  moderate  size,  with  short  legs,  and  are  usually 
black,  spotted  or  banded  with  yellow,  rarely  entirely  black. 
So  far  as  their  habits  are  known,  they  are  inquilines  in  the 
nests  of  solitary  wasps  and  solitary  bees. 


6$O  THE  STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

Family  POMPILID^;  (Pom-pil'i-dae). 
The  Spider-wasps. 

The  spider-wasps  are  so  called  because  they  provision 
their  nests  with  spiders.  They  are  slender  in  form,  with  long 
legs  (Fig.  7/1),  and  are  usually  black  with 
dusky  reddish  or  black  wings;  sometimes 
they  are  variegated  with  red  or  orange.  The 
peduncle  is  short,  so  that  the  abdomen  is  very 
closely  united  to  the  thorax.  Many  of  the 

FIG.  771.—  Pomfilus  .  r  ..  .          , 

'  species  are  of  medium  size,  but  some  are  very 
large.  In  fact,  the  largest  of  all  known  Hymenoptera  belong 
to  this  family. 

One  of  the  giants  of  the  family  is  the  well-known  Taran- 
tula-hawk, Pepsis  formosa  (Pep'sis  for-mo'sa),  of  the  South- 
west, which  stores  its  burrows  with  Tarantulas.  Many  a 
hard-fought  battle  does  this  digger-wasp  have  with  these 
enormous  spiders ;  and  sometimes  it  is  conquered  and  igno- 
miniously  eaten. 

Most  of  the  Pompilidae  dig  burrows  in  the  ground ;  but 
some  species  of  Agenia  (A-ge'ni-a)  make  cells  of  mud  attached 
to  the  lower  surface  of  stones  or  in  the  chinks  of  walls ;  and 
the  members  of  the  genus  Ceropales  (Ce-rop'a-les)  are  inqui- 
lines  in  the  nests  of  other  digger-wasps. 

About  one  hundred  and  twenty  species  belonging  to  this 
family  are  known  in  our  fauna. 

Family  SPHECID^E  (Sphec'i-dae). 
The  Sphecids  (Sphe'cids]  or  the  Thread-waisted  Wasps. 

These  are  the  most  commonly  observed  of  all  our 
digger-wasps,  as  certain  species  build  their  mud  nests  in  the 
attics  of  our  houses;  and,  too,  the  peculiar  shape  of  the 
body  makes  them  very  conspicuous.  The  Sphecidae  differ 
from  the  preceding  families  of  digger-wasps  in  that  the  pro- 


H  YMENOP  TERA.  651 

thorax  is  not  prolonged  backward  on  each  side  to  the  base 

of  the  fore  wing.     But  the  most  striking  characteristic  is 

that  the  first  segment  of  the  abdomen  is 

generally  narrowed  into  a  long,  smooth, 

round  petiole  (Fig.  772),  which  suggests 

the  popular  name  given  above.     The  ve-      FIG.  772.— 


nation  of  the  wings  of  one  of  our  more 

common  species  is  represented  by  Fig.  773.     The  fore  wing 


FIG.  773. — Wings  of  Pelopaeus  cementaritts. 

in  this  family  has  three  closed  submarginal  cells  (2d  III,  III,, 
and  III4),  and  the  last  branch  of  vein  V  (vein  Vs)  arises  be- 
yond the  end  of  the  2d  cell  III.  Most  of  the  species  burrow 
into  sand-banks,  and  provision  their  cells  with  caterpillars 
and  spiders.  But  those  best  known  to  us  are  the  mud- 
daubers.  These  belong  to  the  genus  Pelopceus  (Pel-o-pce'us). 
They  make  nests  of  mud  attached  to  the  lower  surface  of 
flat  stones  or  to  the  ceilings  of  buildings.  These  nests  usu- 
ally have  the  form  of  several  tubes  an  inch  or  so  long  placed 
side  by  side,  and  are  provisioned  with  spiders. 

The  mud-daubers  may  be  seen  in  damp  places  collecting 
mud  for  their  nests,  or  exploring  buildings  in  search  of  a 
place  to  build.  They  have  a  curious  habit  of  jerking  their 
wings  frequently  in  a  nervous  manner. 

About  seventy  species  of  this  family  occur  in  this  country. 


652  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

Family  LARRID^E  (Lar'ri-dae). 
The  Larrids  (Lar'rids). 

This  family  is  composed  of  insects  of  moderate  size  and 
rather  slender  form.  The  abdomen  is  ovoid- 
conical  in  outline  (Fig.  774);  there  is  a  single 
spine  at  the  apex  of  the  middle  tibiae ;  the  fore 
wings  have  an  appendiculate  cell  (Fig.  775,  ap) ; 
and  the  mandibles  are  usually  notched  on  the 
exterior  margin. 

These  insects  burrow  in  sandy  places,  and  provision  their 


FIG.  775. — Wings  of  Larra. 

nests  chiefly  with  orthopterous  insects.  Some  species  fre- 
quent milk-weed  (Asclepias)  blossoms,  but  are  very  difficult 
to  capture. 

More  than  fifty  species  have  been  found  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada ;  most  of  them  occur  in  the  Southwest. 

Family  BEMBECID^E  (Bem-bec'i-dae). 
The  Bembecids  (Bem'be-cids.} 

The  members  of  this  family  are  most  easily  distinguished 
from  the  closely-related  forms  by  the  shape  of  the  upper  lip, 
which  distinctly  projects.  In  some  genera  it  not  only  pro- 
jects, but  is  prolonged  so  as  to  appear  like  a  beak. 

Great  variations  in  size  occur  within  the  family,  The 
majority  of  our  species  are  of  moderate  size  ;  but  some  of 


HYMENOPTERA. 


653 


them  are  among  the  larger  insects  of  the  order.  The  family 
includes  two  quite  distinct  subfamilies. 

To  the  Bembecina  (Bem-be-ci'nae)  belong  the  smaller 
forms,  which  are  usually  black  with  greenish 
or  greenish-yellow  bands.  With  these  the 
labrum  is  longer  than  the  clypeus,  forming 
a  triangular  beak  (Fig.  776).  They  burrow 
in  sand,  and  provision  their  nests  with  flies. 

To  the  Stizina  (Sti-zi'nae)    FIG.  776.- Face  of 

'  Bembex.    /,  labrum. 

belong  the  giants  of  the  fam- 
ily.   With  these  the  labrum  is  shorter  than  the 
clypeus  (Fig.  777).    Our  best-known  represen- 
t  tative  is  the  Cicada-killer,    Sphecius  speciosus 

FIG.  777.—  Face  of  r 

sphedus.  /,  labrum.  (Sphe'ci-us  spe-ci-o'sus).  It  is  a  formidable  in- 
sect,  measuring  one  and  one  fourth  inches  in  length.  It  is 
black,  sometimes  of  a  rusty  color,  and  has  the  abdomen 
banded  with  yellow  (Fig.  778).  It  digs  burrows  in  the  earth, 


\ 


FIG.  778. —  Sphec ius  speciosus. 

two  feet  or  more  in  depth,  and  provisions  each  with  a  Cica- 
da. Many  a  Cicada-song  has  been  suddenly  silenced  because 
the  singer  was  pounced  upon  and  carried  off  alive  but  help- 
less to  be  buried  in  the  den  of  this  fierce,  handsome  insect 
of  prey, 


654 


THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


Family  NYSSONID^E  (Nys-son'i-dae). 
The  Nyssonids  (Nys-so1  nids). 

These  digger-wasps  are  of  medium  size.  Some  of  them 
are  remarkable  for  their  close  resemblance  In  form  and  mark- 
ings to  true  wasps  of  the  family  Eumenidae  ;  but  they  do  not 
plait  their  wings  like  the  true  wasps.  Little  is  recorded  re- 
garding their  habits ;  some  species  provision  their  nests  with 
nymphs  of  leaf-hoppers,  others  with  spittle-insects  (Homop- 
tera).  It  is  said  that  the  species  of  the  typical  genus  Nysson 
(Nys'son)  have  the  habit  of  feigning  death  and  dropping  to 
the  ground  when  alarmed. 

We  have  about  fifty  species  of  this  family  in  our  fauna. 

Family  PHILANTHID^E  (Phi-lan'thi-dae). 

The  Philanthids  (Phi-Ian1  thids). 

These  digger-wasps  are  easily  recognized  by  the  charac- 
ters given  in  the  table  above.  Figure  779  represents  the  wing 


FIG.  779. —  Wings  of  Cerceris. 

of  Cerceris  (Cer-ce'ris)  and  shows  the  typical  venation.  The 
males  are  peculiar  in  having  a  fringe  of  hairs  resembling  a 
mustache  on  the  free  edge  of  the  clypeus  on  each  side. 

The  Philanthids  burrow  in  the  earth.  Some  provision 
their  nests  with  bees;  others  with  beetles.  The  family  con- 
tains about  seventy-five  North  American  species. 


H  YMENOP  TEKA . 


655 


Family  MlMESlD^E  (Mi-mes'i-dae). 

The  Mimesids  (Mi-me' sids). 

The  Mimesids  are  small  digger-wasps  in  which  the  base 
of  the  abdomen  is  slender,  forming  a  petiole 
much  like  that  of  the  Sphecids,  but  differing  in 
being  flattened   and  usually   furrowed  above 
(Fig.    780).      These    digger-wasps   are    much 
smaller  than   the  true    thread-waisted  wasps. 
Less  than  a  score  of  North  American  species 
are   known.      They    make    their   burrows   in 
the    pith    of    brambles,    and    provision    thei 
with   Aphids  or    Psyllids. 

Family  PEMPHREDONIDS  (Pem-phre-don'i-dae). 

The  Pemphredonids  (Pem-phre-do' nids). 
Most  of  the  species  of  this  family  are  slender  insects,  of 
small  size  and  shining  black  color.      They  can  be  distin- 


FIG.  781.— Wings  of  a  Pephredonid. 

guished  from  the  closely-related  families  by  the 
presence  of  two,  and  only  two,  closed  submarginal 
cells  (Fig.  781,  2d  III -}- III&  and  III4).  It  is  a 
small  family,  including  scarcely  a  dozen  North 
American  species. 

The  Pemphredonids  usually  burrow  in  the  pith 
of  dry  branches  and  provision  their  burrows  with  plant-lice. 


656 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


A  very  common  species  in  the  East  is  Stigmus  fraternus 
(Stig'mus  fra-ter'nus).  This  insect  measures  one  fifth  of  an 
inch  or  less  in  length,  and  makes  very  tortuous  burrows  in 
the  pith  of  sumach  (Fig.  782).  Other  common  members  of 
the  family  are  larger. 

Family  CRABRONID.E  (Cra-bron'i-dae). 

The  Crabronids  (Cra!  bro-nids), 
The  Crabronids  can  be  distinguished  from  all  other  digger- 


FIG.  783.— Wings  of  Crabo  singularis. 

wasps  that  occur  in  this  country  by  the  vena- 
tion of  the  fore  wings,  in  which  there  is  only 
one  closed  submarginal  cell  (Fig.  783, 
2d  III  +  III5).  The  head  is  gener- 
ally large,  and  nearly  square  when 
viewed  from  above,  and  sometimes 
F,<  784'-  Droader  than  the  thorax  (Fig.  784). 

crabro.  The   different    members   of    this 

family  vary  greatly  in  their  nesting  habits. 
Some  mine  in  the  pith  of  such  plants  as  sumach 
and  elder;  some  bore  in  more  solid  wood; 
some  dig  burrows  in  the  ground ;  and  others 
make  use  of  any  suitable  hole  they  can  find, 
often  the  deserted  burrow  of  some  other  in- 
sect. These  insects  usually  provision  their  nests 
with  flies;  but  we  have  found  spiders  in  the  Flc 
nests  of  some. 


HYMENOPTERA.  6$? 

We  have  found  the  nests  of  Trypoxylon  frigidum  (Try- 
pox'y-lon  frig'i-dum)  very  common  in  branches  of  sumach 
(Fig.  785),  more  common  perhaps  than  those  of  any  other 
insect  except  the  little  carpenter-bee,  Ceratina.  The  cells 
of  the  nest  of  Trypoxylon  are  separated  by  partitions  of  mud, 
and  the  pupa  when  full  grown  makes  a  very  slender  cocoon, 
with  the  upper  end  rounded  and  sometimes  slightly  swollen, 
and  the  lower  end  blunt  and  of  derfser  texture  than  the 
remainder  of  the  cocoon.  The  adult  insect  is  very  slender 
and  lacks  the  yellow  bands  on  the  abdomen,  possessed  by 
most  members  of  this  family. 

Superfamily  VESPINA  (Ves-pi'na). 
The  True   Wasps. 

All  members  of  this  superfamily  are  winged,  and  when 
at  rest  fold  their  wings  lengthwise  like  a  fan.  In  this  last 
respect  they  differ  from  all  other  Hymenoptera  except  a 
single  genus  of  Chalcis-flies,  Leucospis  (Leu-cos'pis).  The 
prothorax  is  prolonged  backwards  on  each  side  to  the 
base  of  the  front  wing  ;  the  eyes  are  kidney-shaped  ;  and  the 
legs  are  not  formed  for  burrowing,  being  free  from  spines  and 
bristles. 

Three  families  are  included  in  this  superfamily  ;  these 
can  be  separated  by  the  following  table : — 

A.  Antennae  clavate  or  knobbed  at  tip.    p.  657 MASARIDJE. 

AA.  Antennae  filiform  or  nearly  so. 

B.  Tibiae  of  the  middle  legs  with  a   single  terminal  spur;  tarsal 

claws  armed  with  a  tooth,    p.  658 EUMENID^E. 

BB.  Tibiae  of  the   middle  legs  with  two  terminal    spurs;     tarsal 
claws  simple,     p.  660 VESPID^:. 

Family  MASARID.<E  (Ma-sar'i-dae). 

The  Guest-wasps. 

This  is  a  small  family  of  which  only  seven  species  are 
known  to  occur  in  the  United  States.  These  are  found  in 
Texas  and  the  far  West.  As  yet  nothing  is  known  regarding 


658  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

the  habits  of  our  species.  But  as  an  European  species  has 
been  bred  from  the  nest,  of  a  digger-wasp,  it  is  inferred  that 
the  members  of  this  family  are  inquilines. 

Family  EUMENID.E  (Eu-men'i-dse). 
The  Solitary  Wasps. 

All  of  the  variations  in  habits  found  among  digger-wasps 
occur  in  this  family.  Some  are  miners,  digging  tunnels  in 
the  earth  ;  some  are  carpenters,  cutting  tubular  nests. in  wood 
and  then  showing  a  mason's  skill  by  partitioning  their  tun- 
nels off  into  cells  with  mud.  While  others  are  masons  pure 
and  simple,  and  build  oval  or  globular  mud-nests  which  they 
fasten  to  twigs  of  trees ;  such  nests  often  contain  many 
cells.  All  of  these  wasps  are  predaceous,  provisioning  their 
nests  with  insects. 

One  species,  Eumenes  fraternus  (Eu'me-nes  fra-ter'- 
nus),  makes  a  neat  little  nest,  which  appears  like  a  miniature 


FIG.  786.— Eumenes  fratermts  and  its  nest. 


water-jug  (Fig.  786).  These  Mason-wasps  have  a  very  char- 
acteristic form.  The  peduncle  of  the  abdomen  is  shaped 
-  a  bell  with  a  long  handle.  The  segment  of  the  ab- 
domen next  to  the  peduncle  is  large  and  globe-shaped.  The 
segments  behind  this  taper  off  into  a  point,  giving  the  whole 


//  YMENOP  TERA . 


659 


abdomen   the   shape    of    an    old-fashioned 
species  provisions  its  nest  with  caterpil- 
lars, and  frequently  with  the  canker-worm. 

The  greater  number  of  our  solitary 
wasps  belong  to  the  genus  Odynerus  (Od- 
y-ne'rus).  In  this  genus  the  abdomen  is 
joined  to  the  thorax  by  a  very  short  ped- 
uncle. The  shape  of  the  body  and  fre- 
quently the  coloration  resemble  those  of 
the  social  wasps  known  as  yellow-jackets, 
although  usually  the  body  is  more  slender 
and  smaller.  The  common  species  are 
quite  neighborly ;  and  owing  to  this  res- 
emblance to  the  yellow-jackets,  they  in- 
spire us  with  a  fear  that  is  out  of  all 
proportion  to  their  will  or  ability  to  inflict 
pain. 

The  wasps  of  this  genus  exhibit  a  great 
variation  in  habits.  Many  species  burrow 
in  the  stems  of  pithy  plants,  making  a  series 
of  cells  separated  by  mud  partitions;  other 
species  will  avail  themselves  of  any  con- 
venient cavity  in  which  to  make  their  nests, 
frequently  utilizing  the  deserted  nests  of 
mud-daubers.  In  this  case  a  single  cell  of 
a  mud-dauber  is  divided  by  a  transverse 
partition  making  two  cells  for  the  smaller 


earring.      This 


FIG.  fij.—Monotia  quadridens.  r  IG.  788. 

Odynerus.     One  year  these  wasps  plastered  up  many  of  the 


66O  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

keyholes  in  our  house,  including  those  in  the  bureaus  ;  thus 
constructing  for  us  locks  that  required  a  good  deal  of  time 
and  industry  on  our  part  to  open.  Some  species  of  Odyne- 
rus  are  masons  constructing  nests  entirely  of  mud.  One  of 
our  species  makes  a  nest  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.  This 
is  composed  of  hard  clay,  fastened  to  a  twig  of  a  bush,  and 
contains  many  cells. 

Probably  the  most  skilful  of  architects  among  our  soli- 
tary wasps  is  Monobia  quadridens  (Mo-no'bi-a  quad'ri-dens), 
a  species  common,  in  most  of  the  states  east  of  the 'Missis- 
sippi (Fig.  787).  This  insect  bores  a  tunnel  in  solid  wood. 
Figure  788  represents  a  nest  in  our  collection  which  was 
made  in  a  board  in  the  side  of  a  barn.  The  partitions  are 
made  of  mud.  Each  cell  contained  a  pupa  when  the  nest 
was  opened;  so  we  do  not  know  with  what  the  nest  was 
provisioned. 

Family  VESPID.E  (Ves'pi-dae). 

The  Social  Wasps. 

Here  again,  as  with  the  ants,  we  find  colonies  consisting  of 
three  forms  of  individuals,  males,  females,  and  workers.  The 
colonies  exist  for  only  one  season  ;  the  males  and  workers 
die  in  the  autumn  ;  the  females  hibernate  and  each  starts  a 
new  colony  in  the  spring.  In  the  early  part  of  the  season 
only  workers  are  produced  ;  later  the  males  and  females  ap- 
pear. The  three  forms  are  similar  in  coloring.  They  are  all 
winged,  and  the  queens  and  workers  are  provided  with  ven- 
omous  stings.  The  queens  are  larger  than  the  workers,  and 
the  males  have  seven  segments  in  the  abdomen,  while  the 
others  have  only  six.  The  male  wasps  do  not  sting,  but  they 
bear  such  a  close  resemblance  to  the  belligerent,  well-armed 
workers  that  this  interesting  bit  of  knowledge  is  entirely 
useless.  When  we  see  a  hornet  our  interest  in  its  sex  hardly 
leads  us  to  test  it  to  see  whether  it  will  sting,  or  to  examine 
it  closely  to  ascertain  if  it  has  seven  abdominal  segments. 
If  male  wasps  wish  to  get  any  credit  for  their  amiability, 


H  Y MEN  OP  TERA .  66 1 

they  would  do  well  to  change  their  spots,  so  that  they  can  be 
distinguished  at  a  distance. 

Social  wasps  build  their  nests  in  the  ground,  or  attach 
them  to  bushes  and  trees,  or  to  the  roofs  or  eaves  of  buildings. 
The  nests  are  made  of  paper  composed  of  bits  of  wood  con- 
verted into  a  paste  by  the  action  of  the  jaws.  Probably  these 
insects  add  a  fluid  excreted  by  the  mouth  to  the  fibres  of 
wood  in  order  to  make  the  paste,  but  of  this  we  have  no 
definite  knowledge. 

The  species  that  build  their  nests  above  ground  make  a 
grayish  paper  composed  of  fibres  of  weather-worn  but  not 
decayed  wood.  This  material  is  collected  from  stumps  of 
trees,  fences,  and  the  sides  of  unpainted  buildings.  This 
paper  is  comparatively  strong  ;  so  that,  in  those  cases  where 
the  combs  are  enclosed  in  an  envelope,  the  envelope  is  com- 
posed of  sheets  of  paper  of  considerable  size,  a  single  sheet 
often  completely  enveloping  a  nest. 

But  most  of  the  species  that  build  their  nests  in  the 
ground  make  their  paper  out  of  partially-decayed  wood. 
This  paper  is  brownish  in  color  and  is  very  fragile ;  it  would 
not  be  suitable,  therefore,  for  use  in  nests  built  in  exposed 
places.  Even  when  the  nest  is  built  in  a  hole  in  the  ground, 
the  use  of  this  fragile  material  necessitates  a  different  style 
of  architecture.  The  enveloping  layers  of  the  nest,  instead 
of  being  composed  of  sheets  of  considerable  size,  are  made 
up  of  small,  overlapping,  shell-like  portions,  each  firmly 
joined  by  its  edges  to  the  underlying  parts. 

The  social  wasps  are  predaceous  ;  and  they  feed  their 
young  upon  insects  which  they  have  masticated.  These 
wasps  are  also  fond  of  sweets  of  flowers,  the  juices  of  fruits, 
and  of  honey-dew.  They  collect  the  honey-dew  from  leaves 
in  the  vicinity  of  Aphids  without,  so  far  as  we  know,  render- 
ing the  Aphids  any  service  in  return. 

Except  in  California,  only  two  genera  of  social  wasps 
occur  in  the  United  States.  These  are  Polistes  (Po-lis'tes) 
and  Vespa  (Ves'pa).  Each  of  these  genera  is  represented 


662 


THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


by  a  number  of  species.  In  California  there  is  a  single  repre- 
sentative of  a  third  genus,  Polybia  (Po-lyb'i-a).  This  genus 
differs  from  the  other  two  genera,  in  having  the  first  abdom- 
inal segment  long  and  slender,  forming  a  peduncle.  Our 
species  is  Polybia  flavitar sis  (P.  flav-i-tar'sis). 

Polistes. — In  this  genus  the  abdomen  is  long  and  spindle- 
shaped  (Fig.  789).  The  species 
are  black,  ringed  with  yellow,  or 
are  brownish.  Their  nests  con- 
sist each  of  a  single  comb,  sus- 
pended by  a  peduncle,  and  are 
not  enclosed  in  an  envelope  (Fig. 
790).  In  the  fall  these  fellows 
are  quite  as  familiar  as  the  mud- 
FIG.  789.- Poiistes.  daubers,  which  they  resemble  in 

color.  However,  they  are  easily  distinguished  from  these, 
as  the  abdomen  is  not  on  such  an  absurdly  long  peduncle, 


FIG.  790.—  Nest  of  Polistes. 

and  their  wings  fold  like  fans.     They  come  into  our  houses 
searching  for  warm  crevices  in  which  to  pass  the  winter. 

Vespa. — To  this  genus  belong  the  wasps  commonly 
known  as  yellow  -  jackets  and  as  hornets.  With  these 
insects  the  body  is  comparatively  short  and 
rather  stout  (Fig.  791);  the  abdomen  is  at- 
tached to  the  thorax  by  a  very  short  peduncle  ; 
the  color  is  black,  spotted  and  banded  with 
yellow  or  yellowish  white.  The  species  of  this 
genus  enclose  the  combs  of  their  nest  with  a 
spherical  paper  envelope  (Fig.  792).  Any  person  F,G.  79i.— 


HYMENOPTERA.  663 

who  has  no  respect  for  the  rights  of  yellow-jackets  has  be- 
fore him  a  lesson  which  he  will  have  no  difficulty  in  learning, 
if  he  takes  the  pains  to  disturb  one  of  the  oval,  gray  paper 
nests  commonly  found  hanging  from  the  eaves  of  buildings. 
The  yellow  and  black  mass  of  seething  and  buzzing  ven- 
geance that  can  pour  out  of  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  one 
of  these  nests  seems  almost  as  wonderful  as  the  miraculous 
multiplication  of  the  loaves  and  fishes.  And  these  insects 
do  not  threaten  more  than  they  can  perform :  their  painful 


FIG.  792.— Nest  of  Vespa. 

stings  are  so  well  known,  that  neither  man  nor  beast  tres- 
passes willingly  on  their  domains.  Their  nest  is  a  real  palace 
of  papier-mache1.  It  consists  of  several  horizontal  combs 
suspended  one  above  the  other,  with  commodious  galleries 
between,  and  all  enveloped  by  an  elaborate  covering  made 
of  many  folds  of  water-proof  paper.  The  yellow-jackets  are 
clever  and  original  artisans.  Once  we  chanced,  most  inad- 
vertently, to  lift  a  board  and  thereby  tear  off  the  whole  roof 
of  a  nest ;  naturally  we  beat  a  hasty  retreat.  On  returning 
to  the  spot  a  few  days  later  we  found  the  nest  neatly  and 
thoroughly  covered  with  a  sloping  water-proof  roofing  of 


664  THE  STUDY   OF  INSECTS. 

paper,  although  this  was  probably  the  first  time  in  these 
yellow-jackets'  history  that  such  a  problem  in  architecture 
had  occurred.  When  these  wasps  wish  to  enlarge  their 
nest  they  tear  away  the  inner  layers  of  the  envelope,  add  to 
the  sides  of  the  comb,  and  put  on  new  layers  on  the  out- 
side of  the  envelope.  The  yellow-jackets  that  build  their 
habitation  in  the  ground  excavate  a  hole  which  is  enlarged 
gradually  as  the  colony  grows. 

Superfamily  AriNA  (A-pi'na). 
The  Bees. 

The  bees  can  be  distinguished  from  all  other  Hymenop- 
tera  by  the  form  of  the  basal  segment  of  the  hind  tarsi  (Fig. 
737,  c).  This  segment  is  more  or  less  dilated,  flattened,  and 
generally  hairy,  and  bears  an  apparatus  for  collecting  and 
carrying  pollen.  In  the  inquiline  bees,  however,  this  seg- 
ment is  narrower,  and  is  not  furnished  with  organs  for  col- 
lecting and  carrying  pollen. 

Sometimes,  in  the  case  of  those  species  that  most  closely 
approach  the  wasps  in  structure,  it  is  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish bees  by  a  study  of  the  tarsi  alone.  But 
there  is  a  microscopic  character  which  is  said  to  be 
reliable  even  in  these  cases.  It  is  said  that  the  bees 
differ  from  all  other  Hymenoptera  in  the  form  of  the 
hairs  clothing  the  body,  which,  at  least  those  of  the 
thorax,  are  branched  or  plumose  (Fig.  793),  while  in 
all  other  members  of  the  order  they  are  simple. 

The  different  species  of  bees  exhibit  great  varia- 
tions in  habits:  some  are  solitary,  each  female  pro- 
viding a  nest  for  her  young;   some  are   inquilines, 
laying  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  bees;  and  a 
1G>  ro3'  few  are  social,  of  which  the  honey-bee  is  the  most 
familiar  example.     But  in  all  the  nest  is  provisioned  with 
pollen  or  honey,  or  both.     In  this  respect  the  bees  differ 


HYMENOPTERA.  665 

distinctly  from  the  wasps  and  the  digger-wasps,  which  pro- 
vision their  nests  with  other  insects  or  with  spiders. 

The  superfamily  Apina  includes  two  families :  the  An- 
drenidae  or  short-tongued  bees,  and  the  Apidae  or  long- 
tongued  bees.  These  can  be  separated  as  follows : — 

A.  Bees  with  the  terminal  portion  of  the  lower  lip,  the  glossa,  flat- 
tened and  shorter  than  the  mentum ;  and  with  the  basal  segments 
of  the  labial  palpi  not  unlike  the  following  segments,  p.  665. 

ANDRENID^E. 

AA.  Bees  with  the  glossa  slender,  not  flattened,  and  longer  than  the 
mentum ;  and  with  the  basal  segments  of  the  labial  palpi  elongate. 
p.  666 APID^E. 

Family  ANDRENIDAE  (An-dren'i-dae). 
The  Short-tongued  Bees. 

The  family  Andrenidae  includes  several  genera  of  bees 
which  agree  in  having  the  glossa  shorter  than 
the   mentum,    and    flattened    (Fig.    794).     In 
some   genera   the   glossa    is   spear-shaped,  in 
others  it  is  heart-shaped. 

The  different  genera  of  this  family  vary 
greatly  in  habits,  but  none  of  the  species  are 
social.  Among  the  more  common  short- 
tongued  bees  are  some  that  make  their  nests 
in  the  ground,  and  on  this  account  are  termed 
mining-bees.  It  should  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  some  of  the  Apidae  are  also  mining- 
bees,  and  that  not  all  of  the  Andrenidae  are  FIG.  ^.- 

of    Sphecodes.    m, 
miners.  mentum;  f.    pal- 

The  nest  of  a  mining-bee  usually  consists 
of  a  tunnel,  more  or  less  branched,  each  branch  leading  to 
a  single  cell.  The  walls  of  these  cells  are  glazed,  appearing 
like  the  surface  of  earthenware.  In  each  cell  there  is  stored 
a  quantity  of  pollen  and  nectar-paste,  an  egg  is  laid  with 
this  food,  and  the  cell  is  then  closed  up. 

Among  the  larger  of  our  common  mining-bees  are  those 


666  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

of  the  genus  Andrena  (An-dre'na).  Some  of  these  nearly 
or  quite  equal  in  size  the  workers  of  the  honey-bee.  They 
build  their  nests  in  grassy  fields,  sinking  a  perpendicular 
shaft  with  branches  leading  sidewise  to  the  cells.  The 
main  shaft  sometimes  extends  to  a  depth  of  more  than  one 
foot.  These  bees,  though  strictly  solitary,  each  female 
building  her  own  nest,  frequently  build  their  nests  near  to- 
gether, forming  large  villages.  Sometimes  a  village,  or  we 
might  say  a  city,  of  this  kind,  covering  only  one  square  rod 
of  ground,  will  include  several  thousand  nests.  While 
writing  this  account  we  have  received  from  a  correspondent 
a  description  of  a  collection  of  nests  of  this  kind  which  was 
fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  in  the  destruction  of  which 
about  two  thousand  bees  were  killed  —  a  terrible  slaughter 
of  innocent  creatures  ! 

The  smallest  mining-bees,  in  fact  the  smallest  of  all  our 
bees,  belong  to  the  genus  Halictus  (Ha-lic'tus).  These 
measure  from  one  one-hundredth  to  three  one-hundredth's  of 
an  inch  in  length.  They  usually  burrow  in  the  sides  of  cliffs, 
and  especially  in  sand-banks,  which  often  look  as  if  they 
had  been  used  as  targets  for  practice  with  a  shot-gun,  so 
thickly  are  they  studded  with  burrows  of  these  bees.  A 
remarkable  feature  in  the  habits  of  the  bees  of  this  genus  is 
that  several  females  unite  in  making  a  burrow  into  a  bank, 
after  which  each  female  makes  passages  extending  sidewise 
from  this  main  burrow  or  public  corridor  to  her  own  cells. 
While  Andrena  builds  villages  composed  of  individual 
homes,  Halictus  makes  cities  composed  of  apartment- 
houses. 


Family  APID^E  (A'pi-dae). 
The  Long-tongued  Bees. 

In  the  Apidae  we  find  that  the  lower  lip  has  been  highly 
specialized  for  the  procuring  of  nectar  from  deep  flowers. 
Here  the  glossa  is  slender  and  greatly  elongate,  being  longer 


HYMENOPTERA. 


667 


than  the  mentum   (Fig.  795)  ;  the  basal   segments  of   the 
labial  palpi  are  also  elongate. 

A  remarkable  difference  in  habits  exists 
among  the  different  species  of  this  family  : 
some  are  solitary ;  others  are  inquilines ; 
and  a  few  are  social.  Among  the  solitary 
species  we  find  an  even  greater  variation  in 
the  form  of  the  nest  than  we  found  among 
the  solitary  wasps  or  among  the  digger- 
wasps.  Some  of  these  bees  are  miners, 
digging  tunnels  in  the  ground  ;  some  are 
masons,  making  their  nests  out  of  mortar- 
like  mud ;  some  are  carpenters,  boring 
tunnels  in  the  pith  of  plants  or  in  solid 
wood ;  and  some  are  leaf-cutters,  lining 
their  nests  with  pieces  of  leaves  or  of  petals 
of  flowers.  We  have  space  to  describe  the 
habits  of  only  a  few  of  these. 

I.   THE  SOLITARY   LONG-TONGUED   BEES.     FIG.  7gs.-Labium  ot 

The  Leaf-cutter  Bees,  Megachile  (Meg-  ^SSS^SSm^ 
a-chi'le).— The  bees  of  the  genus  Megachile  glos"a'  ' 
have  the  curious  habit  of  making  cells  for  their  young  out 
of  neatly-cut  pieces  of  leaves.  These  cells  are  packed  away 
in  such  secure  places  that  one  does  not  often  find  them  ; 
but  it  is  a  very  easy  thing  to  find  fragments  of  leaves  from 
which  the  pieces  have  been  cut  by  bees.  The  leaves  of 
various  plants  are  used  for  this  purpose,  but  rose-leaves  are 
used  more  frequently  than  any  other  kind.  In  Figure 
796  there  are  represented  one  of  these  bees,  its  nest,  and 
a  spray  of  rose-leaves  from  which  pieces  have  been  cut  by 
the  bee. 

The  species  represented  here,  Megachile  acuta  (M.  a-cu'ta)r 
is  a  carpenter  as  well  as  a  leaf-cutter.  It  first  makes  a  tun- 
nel in  wood,  often  selecting  that  which  is  partially  decayed  ; 
then  it  proceeds  to  build  a  thimble-shaped  tube  at  the  bot- 


668  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

torn  of  this  tunnel.  For  this  purpose  it  cuts  from  the 
leaves  oblong  pieces,  each  of  which  forms  a  part  of  a  side 
and  the  bottom  of  the  thimble-shaped  tube.  Two  such 
pieces  had  been  cut  from  the  lower  leaf  on  the  left  side  of 
the  spray  figured  here.  When  the  thimble-shaped  tube  is 
completed,  the  bee  partially  fills  it  with  a  paste  of  pollen 
and  nectar,  and  then  places  an  egg  upon  the  supply  of  food. 
She  then  cuts  several  circular  pieces  of  leaves,  the  diameter 


FIG.  796.— A  leaf-cutter  bee,  nest,  and  rose-leaves  cut  by  the  bee. 

of  which  is  a  little  greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  tube,  and 
forces  them  into  the  open  end  of  it,  thus  making  a  tightly- 
fitting  plug  ;  three  of  these  circular  pieces  had  been  cut  from 
the  spray  figured.  Usually  several  cells  of  this  kind  are 
placed  end  to  end  in  a  burrow  ;  and  sometimes  many  bees  will 
build  their  nests  near  together  in  the  same  piece  of  wood. 
The  leaf-cutter  bees  do  not  always  bore  tunnels  in  which 


HYMENOPTERA.  669 

to  place  their  cells.  We  have  found  these  cells  in  a  crack 
between  shingles  on  a  roof,  in  the  cavity  of  a  large  branch 
of  sumach,  beneath  stones  lying  on  the  ground,  and  in 
Florida  in  the  tubular  leaves  of  a  pitcher-plant. 

Some  species  of  bees  make  nests  similar  to  those  of  the 
leaf-cutter  bees,  except  that  the  cells  are  formed  of  pieces  of 
petals  of  flowers.  The  petals  of  Pelargonium  are  often  used 
for  this  purpose. 

The  small  Carpenter-bee,  Ceratina  dupla  (Ce-rat'i-na 
du'pla). — The  nests  of  this  bee  are  built  in  dead  twigs  of 
sumach  and  in  the  hollows  of  brambles  and  other  plants. 
They  are  more  common  than  those  of  any  other  of  our 
solitary  bees  that  build  in  these  situations.  This  is  a  dainty 
little  bee,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  and  of  a  metallic 
blue  color.  She  always  selects  a  twig  with  a  soft  pith 
which  she  excavates  with  her  mandibles,  and  so  makes  a 
long  tunnel.  Then  she  gathers  pollen  and  puts  it  in  the 
bottom  of  the  nest,  lays  an  egg  on  it,  and  then  makes  a  par- 
tition out  of  pith-chips,  which  serves  as  a  roof  to  this  cell 
and  a  floor  to  the  one  above  it.  This  process  she  repeats 
until  the  tunnel  is  nearly  full,  then  she  rests  in  the  space 
above  the  last  cell,  and  waits  for  her  children  to  grow  up. 
The  lower  one  hatches  first;  and,  after  it  has  attained  its 
growth,  it  tears  down  the  partition  above  it,  and  then  waits 
patiently  for  the  one  above  to  do  the  same.  Finally,  after 
the  last  one  in  the  top  cell  has  matured,  the  mother  leads 
forth  her  full-fledged  family  in  a  flight  into  the  sunshine. 
This  is  the  only  case  known  to  the  writer  where  a  solitary 
bee  watches  her  nest  till  her  young  mature.  After  the  last 
of  the  brood  has  emerged  from  its  cell,  the  substance  of 
which  the  partitions  were  made,  and  which  has  been  forced 
to  the  bottom  of  the  nest  by  the  young  bees  when  making 
their  escape,  is  cleaned  out  by  the  family,  the  old  bee  and 
the  young  ones  all  working  together.  Then  the  nest  is  used 
again  by  one  of  the  bees.  We  have  collected  hundreds  of 
these  nests,  and,  by  opening  different  nests  at  different  sea- 


6/O  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

sons,  have  gained  an  idea  of  what  goes  on  in  a  single  nest. 
There  are  two  broods  each  year.  The  mature  bees  of  the 
fall  brood  winter  in  the  nests. 

The  Large  Carpenter-bee,  Xylocopa  virginica  (Xy-loc'o-pa 
vir-gin  i-ca). — This  is  a  large  insect,  resembling  a  bumblebee 
in  size,  and  somewhat  in  appearance.  But  it  can  be  easily 
distinguished  from  a  bumblebee,  as  the  female  has  a  dense 
brush  of  hairs  on  the  hind  legj,  instea'd  of  a  basket  for  carry- 
ing pollen.  This  bee  builds  its  nest  in  solid  wood,  and  some- 
times excavates  a  tunnel  a  foot  in  length.  These  tunnels 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  carpenter-wasp,  Monobia  quadri- 
dens  (Fig.  788)  ;  but  differ  in  being  provisioned  with  a  paste 
of  pollen  and  nectar,  and  in  the  structure  of  the  partitions. 
These  are  made  of  chips  of  wood,  securely  cemented  to- 
gether, and  arranged  in  a  closely-wound  spiral.  This 
arrangement  of  the  chips  is  easily  seen  when  the  lower  side 
of  a  partition  is  examined  ;  but  the  upper  side  of  a  partition, 
which  forms  the  floor  of  the  cell  above  it,  is  made  concave 
and  very  smooth,  so  that  the  arrangement  of  the  chips  is 
not  visible. 

II.   THE   GUEST-BEES   OR  INQUILTNES. 

Although  bees  are  proverbially  industrious,  we  find 
many  loafers  in  the  family.  We  do  not  refer  to  the  lazy 
males  of  those  species  in  which  the  females  are  hard  workers, 
but  to  certain  species  in  which  both  sexes  are  alike  idle, 
and  dependent  upon  the  exertions  of  other  species  of  bees. 
These  idle  species  are  called  guest-bees,  or  inquilines,  be- 
cause they  are  reared  in  the  nests  of  other  bees,  who  act, 
willingly  or  unwillingly,  as  hosts. 

The  guest-bees  are  entertained  both  by  solitary  bees  and 
by  social  bees ;  but  each  species  of  guest-bee  inhabits  the 
nests  of  a  particular  kind  of  working  bee.  Thus  the  nests 
of  certain  bees  are  visited  by  certain  guest-bees,  while  those 
of  other  species  are  infested  by  different  guests.  This  habit 
of  sponging  their  living  has  had  a  degrading  effect  on  the 
guest-bees  ;  for  we  find  that  they  are  not  merely  idle,  but 


HYMENOPTERA.  6/1 

are  actually  unable  to  work ;  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
organs  for  collecting  and  carrying  pollen  have  been  lost 
through  disuse. 

The  inquiline  bees  that  infest  the  nests  of  solitary  bees 
resemble  the  cuckoo-flies  in  habits,  watching  their  oppor- 
tunity to  steel  into  a  partially  completed  nest,  and,  cuckoo- 
like,  laying  an  egg  there.  The  larva  of  the  guest-bee  hatch- 
ing first  is  able  to  devour  th,e  food  stored  there,  and  thus 
starves  the  rightful  occupant  of  the  nest.  We  have  in  our 
collection  many  nests  cf  solitary  bees  in  which  more  than 
half  of  the  cells  were  inhabited  by  inquilines. 

The  relations  existing  between  the  solitary  bees  and 
their  unwelcome  guests  are  easy  to  understand  ;  but  when 
we  study  the  nests  of  bumblebees  we  find  that  they,  too, 
have  guests  :  but  in  this  case  the  guests  are  apparently  wel- 
come, although,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  learn,  they 
are  of  no  use  to  the  colony. 

The  inquilines  infesting  the  nests  of  bumblebees  belong 
to  the  genus  Psithyrus  (Psith'y-rus).  These  bees  so  closely 
resemble  bumblebees  in  appearance  and  structure  that  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  male  is  a 
Psithyrus  or  a  Bombus ;  but  the  females  are  easily  distin- 
guished, for  in  Psithyrus  the  pollen-basket  of  the  hind  legs 
has  been  lost  through  disuse.  In  Psithyrus  there  are  only 
two  forms  of  individuals,  the  males  and  the  females,  there 
being  no  working  caste,  as  with  bumblebees. 

The  female  Psithyrus  lays  her  eggs  in  a  bumblebee's 
nest,  and  when  the  larvae  hatch  they  are  cared  for  by  the 
bumblebees  as  if  they  belonged  in  the  nest.  And  even  after 
the  guests  have  reached  maturity  they  come  and  go  in  the 
nest  without  being  disturbed,  although  they  never  lend  a  help- 
ing mandible  in  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  colony.  Some- 
times these  guests  very  closely  resemble  their  hosts  in  size 
and  color,  but  in  other  cases  the  Psithyrus  is  marked  very 
differently  from  the  Bombus  that  entertains  it.  We  cannot 
suppose,  therefore,  that  the  guests  are  mistaken  for  mem- 


6/2  THE   STUD  Y  OF  INSECTS. 

bers  of  the  family.  Neither  is  it  probable  that  the  bumble- 
bees are  unable  to  drive  their  guests  away.  Let  any  one  in- 
clined to  this  view  disturb  a  bumblebee's  nest,  and  he  will 
probably  have  an  increased  appreciation  of  their  powers  of 
defence.  These  facts  have  led  some  naturalists  to  believe  that 
these  aristocratic  guests  perform  some  important  and  neces- 
sary duties  conducive  to  the  general  prosperity  of  the  whole 
colony,  although  as  yet  we  have  not  the  slightest  hint  as  to 
what  these  duties  may  be. 

III.   THE  SOCIAL  BEES. 

The  social  bees  are  so  called  because  many  individuals 
work  together  to  build  a  common  home.  Here,  as  with  the 
ants  and  with  the  social  wasps,  we  find  three  forms  of  in- 
dividuals— the  males  or  drones,  the  females  or  queens,  and 
the  workers.  The  workers  are  a  caste  of  females  that  rarely 
lay  eggs,  but  are  especially  adapted  for  performing  the 
labors  of  the  colony. 

Our  native  social  bees  belong  to  the  genus  Bombus,  and 
are  commonly  known  as  bumblebees.  Of  these  more  than 
fifty  species  have  been  described  from  North  America. 
We  have  also  an  introduced,  domesticated  species,  the 
Honey-bee,  which  now  lives  wild  in  all  parts  of  our  country, 
building  its  nest  in  hollow  trees  and  in  other  situations. 

The  Bumblebees,  Bombus  (Bom'bus). — The  clumsy  rover, 
the  bumblebee,  is  an  old  friend  of  us  all.  As  children  we 
caught  her  off  thistle-blossoms  and  imprisoned  her  in 
emptied  milkweed  pods,  and  bade  her  sing  for  us.  We 
robbed  her  nest  in  the  hay-field,  and  tried  to  believe  that 
the  strongly-flavored  honey,  mixed  with  dirt,  was  delicious. 
And  all  our  lives  the  sound  of  her  droning  has  brought  to 
us  visions  of  blue  skies,  roadsides  golden  with  buttercups, 
and  fields  purple  with  clover-blossoms.  And  she  has  de- 
served all  the  attention  and  affection  bestowed  upon  her, 
because  she  is  usually  good-natured  and  companionable. 
She  is  a  happy-go-lucky  insect,  and  takes  life  as  it  comes 


H  YMENOP  TERA.  6/3 

without  any  of  the  severe  disciplining  and  exact  methods 
of  her  cousin,  the  honey-bee. 

With  the  bumblebees  tne  queens  are  larger  than  either 
the  workers  or  the  males,  and  are  the  only  ones  that  live 
through  the  winter.  In  early  spring  we  often  see  one  of 
these  great  queens  flying  low,  and  inspecting  our  meadows 
and  pastures  for  a  building-place.  She  chooses  some  de- 
serted mouse-nest  in  the  meadow,  and  places  within  it  a  ball 
of  pollen,  upon  which  she  lays  some  eggs.  As  soon  as  the 
larvae  hatch  they  eat  into  the  pollen-mass  in  all  directions, 
and  when  full  grown  make  for  themselves  silken  cocoons, 
and  change  to  pupae.  These  cocoons  the  old  bees  strengthen 
with  wax,  and  after  the  young  bees  vacate  them  they  are 
used  as  storing  cells  for  honey.  This  explains  the  irregu- 
larity of  the  bumblebee-comb.  The  first  broods  of  the  sea- 
son are  workers,  and  relieve  the  queen  of  all  duties  except 
laying  the  eggs.  Later  in  the  summer  males  and  females 
appear,  and  it  can  be  said  to  the  credit  of  the  bumblebee 
queens  that  they  are  not  jealous,  but  allow  the  young  queens 
to  live  with  them  in  the  nest.  In  the  autumn  the  colony 
breaks  up,  and  all  of  the  bees,  except  the  young  queens,  perish. 
These  crawl  away  into  some  protected  place  and  pass  the 
winter.  In  .the  spring  each  queen  that  has  survived  the 
winter  founds  a  new  colony,  performing,  until  a  brood  of 
workers  has  been  developed,  both  the  duties  of  queen  and 
of  worker. 

The  Honey-bee,  Apis  inellifica  (A'pis  mel-lif  i-ca). — Neat 
rows  of  hives  on  a  sunny  slope,  with  an  orchard  on  one  side 
and  wide-stretching  meadows  on  the  other,  the  busy  hum 
of  comers  and  goers  of  this  city  of  cities,  the  odor  of  honey 
weighing  down  every  passing  breeze — these  constitute 
one  of  the  most  home-like  possessions  of  the  ideal  country- 
home. 

The  honey-bee,  through  its  useful  products,  has  been 
known  and  cared  for  by  man  for  centuries.  Philosophers 
have  written  about  it,  poets  have  sung  its  praises,  and  nat- 


6/4  THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 

uralists  have  studied  it  during  past  ages,  until  there  is 
probably  no  other  insect  with  which  man  has  such  an  inti- 
mate acquaintance.  The  honey-bee  was  originally  a  Euro- 
pean species,  but  has  been  domesticated  the  world  over. 
It  was  introduced  into  America  more  than  three  centuries 
ago,  and  escaping  swarms  have  stocked  our  forests  with 
what  we  call  wild  bees,  for  when  free  they  almost  univer- 
sally build  their  nests  in  hollow  trees.  These  insects  offer  a 
no  less  interesting  study  of  communistic  society  than  do 
ants.  There  are  in  each  community  three  forms  of  indi- 
viduals— the  queen  or  female,  the  drones  or  males,  and  the 
workers,  which  are  imperfectly  developed  females.  The 
worker  is  our  common  acquaintance,  the  dull-black  and 
gold-colored  companion  of  our  walks,  that  we  watch  with 
interest  as  she  ransacks  the  flowers  of  a  garden  or  a  way- 
side for  her  booty  of  nectar  or  pollen,  now  bending  low  a 
violet  or  a  clover-blossom,  now  plunging  head  foremost  into 
a  hollyhock  or  a  lily,  from  which  she  emerges  dusty  with  the 
gold  of  pollen-doors  which  barred  her  way  to  nectar-cham- 
bers. We  marvel  at  her  industry  ;  but  she  is  ever  driven  on 
with  the  sense  of  her  responsibilities  :  for  the  worker-sister- 
hood must  do  all  the  work  of  the  hive,  collect  and  store  the 
food,  manufacture  the  wax,  build  the  comb,  take  care  of  the 
footless,  helpless  larvne,  fight  the  battles  for  protection,  and 
manage  affairs  generally. 

The  drones  are  larger  than  the  workers,  and  are  reared 
in  larger  cells.  If  honeycombs  be  examined,  some  sheets  will 
be  seen  to  be  composed  of  larger  cells  than  those  of  the  more 
common  type.  It  is  in  cells  of  this  kind  that  the  eggs  are 
laid  which  are  to  develop  into  males.  In  shape  the  drones 
are  broader  and  blunter  than  the  workers.  They  are  few  in 
numbers,  and  are  only  present  in  the  hive  during  the  early 
summer.  After  the  swarming  season  is  over,  these  gentle- 
men of  leisure  are  driven  out  of  the  hive  by  the  workers  or 
are  killed  by  them. 

The   queen    is   larger  than   a  worker,   and  has  a  long, 


HYMENOPTERA.  6?$ 

pointed  body.  She  is  developed  in  a  cell  which  differs 
greatly  from  the  ordi- 
nary hexagonal  cell  of 
honeycomb.  This  cell 
is  large,  cylindrical,  and 
extends  vertically.  In 
Figure  797  the  begin- 
nings of  two  queen- 
cells  are  represented  on 
the  lower  edge  of  the 
comb,  and  a  completed 
cell  extends  over  the  FlG-  797-~ Comb  of  the  Honey-bee<  with  queen-ceils, 
face  of  the  comb  near  the  left  side.  From  the  lower  end 
of  this  cell  hangs  a  lid,  which  was  cut  away  by  the  workers 
to  allow  the  queen  to  emerge. 

The  larvae  that  are  to  develop  into  either  workers  or 
drones,  and  which  are  contained  in  hexagonal,  horizontal 
cells,  are  fed  with  honey  and  bee-bread.  But  the  occupant 
of  a  queen-cell  is  furnished  with  very  different  food — a  sub- 
stance called  by  bee-keepers  royal  jelly.  This  royal  jelly  is 
a  substance  which  resembles  blanc-mange  in  color  and  con- 
sistency. It  is  excreted  from  the  mouth  by  the  workers, 
and  is  a  very  nutritious  food. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  in  the  egg  state  there  is 
no  difference  between  a  worker  and  a  queen.  When  the 
workers  wish  to  develop  a  queen  they  tear  down  the  parti- 
tions between  three  adjacent  cells  containing  eggs  that 
under  ordinary  conditions  would  develop  into  workers. 
Then  they  destroy  two  of  the  eggs,  and  build  a  queen-cell 
over  the  third.  When  the  egg  hatches  they  feed  the  larva 
with  royal  jelly,  and  it  develops  into  a  queen. 

In  early  summer  several  queen-cells  are  provided  in  each 
colony ;  as  soon  as  a  queen  is  developed  from  one  of  these 
the  old  queen  attempts  to  destroy  her.  But  the  young 
queen  is  guarded  by  the  workers,  and  then  the  old  queen 


6j6  THE   STUDY      /-   /    SECTS. 

with  a  goodly  portion  of  her  sub  ,ts  swarm  out,  and  they 
go  off  to  start  a  new  colony. 

This  swarming  of  the  honey-lie  is  essential  to  the  con- 
tinued existence  of  the  species  ;  for  in  social  insects  it  is  as 
necessary  that  the  colonies  be  multiplied  as  it  is  that  there 
should  be  a  reproduction  of  individuals.  Otherwise,  as  the 
colonies  were  destroyed  the  species  would  become  extinct. 
With  the  social  wasps  and  with  the  bumblebees  the  old 
queen  and  the  young  ones  remain  together  peacefully  in  the 
nest ;  but  at  the  close  of  the  season  the  nest  is  abandoned 
by  all  as  an  unfit  place  for  passing  the  winter,  and  in  the 
following  spring  each  young  queen  founds  a  new  colony. 
Thus  there  is  a  tendency  towa  a  great  multiplication  of 
colonies.  But  with  the  hone  .ee  the  habit  of  storing 
food  for  winter,  and  the  nature  jf  the  habitations  of  these 
insects,  renders  it  possible  forf  ponies  to  exist  indefi- 

nitely. And  thus  if  the  old  y.  .  young  queens  remained 
together  peacefully  there  woulc  be  no  multiplication  of  colo- 
nies, and  the  species  would  surely  c  ie  out  in  time.  We  see, 
therefore,  that  what  appears  to  be  merely  jealousy  on  the 
part  of  the  queen  honey-bee  is  an  instinct  necessary  to  the 
continuance  of  the  species, 

The  sting  of  a  queen-bee  is  no  ignoble  weapon,  but  it  is 
never  used  except  against  a  rival  queen.  When  several 
young  queens  mature  at  the  same  time  there  is  a  pitched 
battle  for  supremacy,  and  the  last  left  living  on  the  field  be- 
comes the  head  of  the  colony.  One  morning  we  found  the 
lifeless  bodies  of  fifteen  young  queens  cast  forth  from  a 
single  hive — a  monument  to  the  powers  of  the  surviving 
Amazon  in  triumphant  possession  within. 

The  materials  used  by  bees  are  wax  and  propolis,  which 
serve  as  materials  for  construction  ;  and  honey  and  bee- 
bread,  used  for  food. 

The  comb  is  made  of  wax,  which  is  an  excretion  of  the 
bee.  When  a  colony  needs  wax,  many  of  the  workers  gorge 
themselves  with  honey,  and  then  hang  quietly  in  a  curtain- 


j¥*'J  rE  yof  TERA .  677 

like  mass,  the  upper  tk  k  clinging  to  the  roof  of  the  hive, 
and  the  lower  ones  to  .  bees  above  them.  After  about 
twenty-four  hours  there  Appears  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
abdomen  of  each  bee  little  plates  of  wax  that  are  forced  out 
from  openings  between  the  ventral,  abdominal  segments 
called  wax-pockets.  Other  workers  attend  to  this  curtain 
and  collect  the  wax  as  fast  as  it  appears,  and  use  it  at  once  in 
constructing  comb.  As  it  requires  about  twenty-one  pounds 
of  honey  to  make  one  pound  of  wax,  the  bees,  who  are  true 
economists,  make  this  expensive  product  go  as  far  as  possi- 
ble. The  hexagonal  cells  of  the  honeycomb  afford  an 
ideally  compact  arrangerr""nt,  as  if  the  bees  were  mathema- 
ticians and  had  fully  plai  'i  to  secure  the  most  room  in  the 
least  space.  The  cells  c  -the  combs  are  used  both  for 
rearing  the  young  and  for  '  : tiring  food. 

Propolis  is  a  cemen  for  cementing  up  crevices,  and 

is  made  of  a  resin  which  e  bees  collect  from  the  buds  of 
various  trees,  but  espechll>  the  poplar. 

Honey  is  made  fronfrthe  nectar  of  flowers  and  is  taken 
into  the  honey  stomach  of  the  bee,  and  there  changed  into 
honey,  and  then  regurgitated  into  the  cells  of  the  comb. 

Bee-bread  is  made  from  the  pollen  of  flowers,  which  the 
bees  bring  in  on  the  plates  fringed  with  hairs  on  the  hind 
legs. 

There  is  a  large  literature  concerning  the  intelligence  of 
bees,  but  those  who  love  to  see  rather  than  merely  to  think 
about  interesting  things  will  find  keenest  pleasure  in  intimate 
associations  with  these  little  communists.  One  soon  learns 
to  love  them ;  and  the  reward  of  studying  them  sympathet- 
ically is  a  satisfaction  to  the  mind  far  beyond  the  sweetness 
of  honey  to  the  palate. 


INDEX   AND   GLOSSARY. 


Abbot's  Bag- worm,  220 
Abdomen  and  its  appendages,  66 
Aberrant  long-horned  beetles,  566 
Acalyptrate  Muscidae,  484 
Acanthia   hirundinis,   140  ;   A.  lectu- 

laria,  140 
Acanthiidae,  140 
Acarina,  42 
Accessory  cells,  199 
Achorutes  nivicola,  85 
Acilius,  525 

Acoloithus  falsarius,  226 
Acontia  candefacta,  300 
Acorn-weevils,  593 
Acrididae,  108 
Acroceridae,  458 
Acroneura,  94 
Acronycta  americana,   307;  A.  ham- 

amelis,  308;  A.  morula,  307 
Actias  =  Tropcea 
Actinomeris,  392 
Aculeata,  601,  631 
Adalia  bipunctata,  535 
Adephaga,  496 
Adipose  tissue,  71 
Adirondack  Black-fly,  453 
Adult,  55 
TEgialitidae,  584 
Aeronautic  Spiders,  25 
./Esophagus,  71 
Agalena  naevia,  32 
Agaelnidae,  30 
Agamic  form,   158 
Agaristidae,  313 
Agenia,  650 
Aglais  milberti.  402 
Agrilus  ruficollis,  550 
Ailanthus-worm,  357 
Alaptus  excisus,  630 
Alausmyops,  548;  A.  oculatus,  547 


Alder-blight,  161,  391 

Aletia  argillacea,  301 

Aleyrodes,  163 

Aleyrodidae,  163 

Alimentary  canal,  67,  71 

Alkaline  lakes,  487 

Allorhina  nitida,  566 

Alnus  incana,  216 

Alsophila  pometaria,  276 

Alula,  421 

Alulet,  421 

Alvpia  langtonii,  314;  A.  octomacu- 

lata,  314 

Ambient  vein,  421 
Amblychila  cylindriformis,  518 
Ambrosia  artemisiaefolia,  300 
Ambrysus,  133 
Ambush  bugs,  138 
American  Copper,  390 
American  Copper  Hind-wing,  302 
American  Dagger,  307 
American  Lappet,  363. 
American  Saw-fly,  612 
American  Tortoise-shell,  402 
Ampelophaga  myron,  336 
Amphibolips      coccineae,     618;      A. 

spongifica,  618 
Amphicerus  bicaudatus,  553 
Amphipyra  pyramidoides,  302 
Amphizoa,  521 
Amphizoidae,  521 
Anabrus,  115 
Anaea  andria,  410 
Anal  angle,  64 
Anal  veins,  64 
Analytical  tables,  method    of  using, 

10 

Anasa  tristis,  144 
Ancyloxipha  numitor,  373 
Andrena,  590,  666 

679 


68o 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


Andrenidae,  665 

Andricus  californicus,  620 

Angle-wings,  401 

Angoumois  Grain-moth,  258 

Angular-winged  Katydid,  113 

Angulifera.Moth,  355 

Animal  Kingdom,  4 

Anisopteryx  =  Alsophila 

Anisota,  347  ;  A.  senatoria,  348;  A. 
stigma,  348;  A.  virginiensis,  348 

Anomala  lucicola,  562 

Anomalous  Brachycera,  417 

Anomalous  Nematocera,  417 

Anosia  plexippus,  397,  408 

Ante-coxal  piece  of  the  metasternum, 
5«4 

Antelope  Beetle,  555 

Antennae,  59,  500 

Amhicidae,  586 

Amhocharis,  385;  see  also  Synchloe 

Anthocharis  genutia,  385 

Anthomyiids,  483 

Anthomyiinae,  483 

Anthonomus  quadrigibbus,  594  ;  A. 
signatus,  594 

Anthrenus  museorum,  540  ;  A. 
scrophulariae,  539;  A.  varius,  540 

Anthribidae,  598 

Ant-lions,  175,  182 

Ants,  157,  590,  633 

Aorta,  72 

Apatela  =  Acronycta 

Apex,  64 

Aphididae,  156 

Aphidius,  626 

Aphids,  121,  156 

Aphis  brassicae,  159;  A.  maidis,  158; 
A.  mali,  159 

Aphis-lions,  175,  180 

Aphodian  Dung-beetles,  558 

Aphodius  fimetarius,  558 

Aphrophora  quadrangularis,  153 

Aphycus  eruptor,  628 

Apidae,  666 

Apina,  664 

Apiocera,  462 

Apioceridae,  462 

Apiocerids,  462 

Apis  mellifica,  673 

Appendiculate  cell,  607 

Apple,  beetles  infesting,  486,  549, 
565,  569,  57i,  573,  58o,  594;  cater- 
pillars infesting,  218,  223,  241,  253, 
254,  265,  267,  300,  303,  321,  334, 
353,  356,  363,  364,  407;  maggots 
infesting,  486 


Apple  Bucculatrix,  253 

Apple-maggot,  486 

Apple-tree  Aphis,  159 

Apple-tree  Tent-caterpillar,  360 

Apple-twig  Borer,  553 

Apple-weevil,  594 

Apricot,  577,  594 

Arachnida,  12 

Aradidae,  139 

Aramigus  fulleri,  592 

Araneida,  20 

Arbor  vitae,  220 

Arctia  =  Eyprepia 

Arctiidae,  317 

Arctiids,  317 

Argus-tortoise,  581 

Argynnids,  399 

Argynnis  cybele,  400 

Arista,  419 

Armored-scales,  171 

Army-worm,  303 

Arthromacra  aenea,  584 

Arthropoda,  9 

Arthropods,  9 

Arzama  =  Bellura 

Ascalaphus,  183 

Aschiza,  418 

Asclepias,  397 

Ash,  321,  334,  335,  364 

Asilidae,  460 

Asitnina,  380 

Asparagus-beetle,  575 

Aspidiotus  aurantii,  173,  174 

Aspidisca  splendoriferella,  254 

Assassin-bugs,  137 

Astrangulus,  394 

Ateuchus  sacer,  557 

Atlides  halesus,  393 

Atropos  divinatoria,  99 

Attacus  =  Callosamia  and  Samia 

Attelabidae,  591 

Attelabus,   591 

Attidas,  42 

Aulacus,  627 

Australian  Lady-bug,  i65 

Automeris  io,  351 

Auzaiidae,  288 

Auzatids,  288 

Axillary  excision,  420 

Back-swimmers,  130 

Bad-wing,   286 

Mag-worm  Moths,  219 

Balaninus,  593;  B.  caryatrypes,  593; 

B.  nasicus,   593;  B.  quercus,    593' 

B.  rectus,  593 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


68 1 


Balsa  malana,  303 

Baltimore,  399 

Banded  Elfin,  393 

Banded  Footman,  326 

Banded  Hair-streak,  392 

Banded  Purple,  406 

Baptria  =  Euchaeca 

Bark-lice,  164 

Barn-swallow,  140 

Basilarchia  archippus,  407;  B.  arthe- 

mis,   406;    B.    astyanax,    406;     B. 

astyanax-arthemis,  407 
Basilona  imperialis,  346 
Basswood,  267,  353,  580 
Bass-wood  Leaf-roller,  231 
Bat-ticks,  489 
Beans,  300,  371,  582 
Bean-weevil,  582 
Beautiful  Maple-borer,  570 
Beautiful  Wood-nymph,  315 
Beaver-parasite,  529 
Bed-bug,  140 
Bee,  589,  590,  664 
Beech,  549 

Beech-tree  Blight,  161 
Bee-flies,  463 
Bee-louse,  489 
Bee-moth  Family,  233 
Beet,  484 
Beetles,  494 
Beggar,   285 
Bella-moth,  319 
Bellura  gortynides,  304 
Belostoma  americanum,  132 
Belostomidae,  131 
Bembecidse,  652 
Bembecids,  652 
Bembecinae,  653 
Benacus  griseus,  132 
Berytidae,  143 
Bibio,  450 
Bibionidae,  449 
Big  Bed-bug,  137 
Big-eyed  Flies,  473 
Bill-bugs,  595 

Birch,  278,  284,  364,  406,  275 
Bird-lice,  100 
Birds,  488 

Biston  cognataria,  280 
Bittacus,  185 
Blackberry,  550,  620 
Black-bordered  Yellow,  386 
Black-c  Owlet,  306 
Black  Damsel-bug,  138 
Black  Dash,  373 
Black-flies,  451 


Black  Scale,  170 

Black  Swallow-tail,  377 

Black  Witch,  297 

Blattidae,  106 

Bleaching  wings,  197 

Blepharocera,  433  ;  B.  capitata,  434 

Blepharoceridae,  432 

Blissus  leucopterus,  142 

Blister-beetles,  586 

Blonde  Damsel-bug,  138 

Blood,  75 

Blood-vessels,  71 

Blotch  mines,  249 

Blow-fly,  483 

Blue-eyed  Grayling,  411 

Blues,  391 

Boletotherus  bifurcus,  583 

Boll-worm,  300 

Bombardier-beetles,  520 

Bombus,  672 

Bombycidae,  340 

Bombyliidae,  463 

Bombylius,  463 

Bombyx  mori,  340 

Book-lice,  98 

Book-worm,  553 

Boreus,  185 

Boring  Hymenopiera,  601,  610 

Bot-flies,  477 

Brachinus,  520 

Brachycera,  417 

Brachytarsus,  598 

Braconidae,  625 

Braconids,  625 

Brain,  67 

Branches,  4 

Braula  caeca,  489 

Braulidae,  489 

Breast-bone,  445 

Brenthidae,  594 

Brenthis,  400 

Brenthus,  595 

Brephos  infans,  274 

Bristle-tails,  82,  83 

Broad-necked  Prionus,  568 

Broad  -  shouldered    Water -striders, 

134 

Bronze  Copper,  390 
Bruchidae,  581 

Bruchus  obtectus,  582  ;  B.  pisi,  581 
Brychius,  522 

Bucculatrix  pomifoliella,  253 
Budding,  159 
Bud-moth,  241 
Bugs,  121 
Bullet-gall,  619 


682 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Bumblebee  Hawk-moth,  338 
Bumble-bees,  648,  672 
Bumble  Flower-beetle,  565 
Buprestidae,  548 
Buprestids,  548 
Burrower-bugs,  145 
Buttercup  Oil-beetle,  588 
Butterflies,  196,  207,  373 
Butternut,  320,  346,  363 
Byrrhidae,  542 
Byrsopidae,  591 
Byturus  unicolor,  541 

Cabbage,  301,  305,  371,  383,  384,  578 

Cabbage  Aphis,  159 

Cabbage-butterfly,  382 

Cabbage-root  Maggot,  484 

Cabbage-worms,  381 

Cacoecia,  244  ;  C.  cerasivorana,  245  ; 
C.  fervadana,  245;  C.  rosana,  244 

Caddice-flies,  186,  187 

Caddice-worms,  186,  187 

Caenis,  87 

Calamistrum,  23 

Calandra  oryzae,  596 

Calandridae,  595 

Calephelis  borealis,  394  ;  C.  caenius, 
394 

Calico-back,  145 

Callidryas  eubule,  387 

Callimorpha  =  Haploa 

Calliphora  vomitoria,  483 

Callosamia  augulifera,  355  ;  C.  pro- 
methea,  354 

Calocalpe  undulata,  284 

Calopteron  reticulatum,  551 

Calosoma  calidum,  519  ;  C.  scruta- 
tor, 519 

Calyptrate  Muscidae,  480 

Camponotus  pennsylvanicus,  635,640 

Campsomyia  macellaria,  483 

Cane,  563 

Canker-worms,  275 

Canthon  laevis,  558 

Capitate,  60 

Capsidae,  140 

Carabidae,  518 

Carbon  bisulphide,  l6l 

Cardo,  500 

Carolina  Locust,  in 

Carpenter-ant,  640 

Carpenter-bee,  669 

Carpenter- moths,  221 

Carpet  Beetle,  539 

Carpocapsa  pomonella,  241 

Carrion- beetles,  529 


Carteria  lacca,  166 
Case-bearers,  257 
Case-bearing  Clothes-moth,  257 
Cassia,  386,  387,  581 
Caterpillars,  193 
Caterva  =  Cingilia 
Catocala,  298  ;  C.  ilia,  298 
Cattle-tick,  43 
Caudal  setae,  66 
Cave-crickets,  114 

Cecidomyia  albovittata,  446  ;  C.  de- 
structor, 446;  C.  leguminicola,  446  ; 

C.  strobiloides,   445  ;     C.     trifolii, 

446 

Cecidomyiidae,  444 
Cecropia  Moth,  356 
Cell,  421 

Cells  of  the  wing,  605 
Celtis,  156,  403;   C.  occidentalis,  397 
Centipedes,  45,  46 
Cephaloidae,  585 
Cephalothorax,  12 
Cerambycidae,  567 
Cerambycids,  567 
Cerambycinae,  569 
Ceratina  dupla,  669 
Ceratocampidae  =r  Citheroniidae 
Ceratopogon,  441 
Ceratopsyllus  serraticeps,  492 
Cerceris,  654 
Cerci,  66 
Cercopidae,  152 
Cercyonis     alope,    411  ;     C.     alope- 

nephele,  412  ;  C.  nephele,  411 
Ceresa  bubalus,  155 
Cermatia  forceps,  46 
Ceropales,  650 
Ceuthophilus,  114 
Chain-dotted  Geometer,  279 
Chalcididffi,  628 
Chalcis-flies,  628 
Chalcophora  virginica,  549 
Chamyriscerintha,  300 
Chauliodes,  178  ;  C.  pecticornis,  178  ; 

C.  serricornis,  178 
Chauliognathus,  551;  C.  marginatus, 

551  ;  C.  pennsylvanicus,  551 
Checkered  Beetles,  552 
Checkered  White,  384 
Cheese,  45 
Cheese- maggot,  486 
Chelicerae,  13 
Chelone  glabra,  399 
Chelymorpha  argus,  581 
Cherry,  245,  284,  355,  3&4,  549.   5&5, 

595 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


683 


Cherry-tree  Aphis,  159 

Cherry-tree  Ugly-nest  Tortricid,  245 

Chestnut,  278,  593 

Chickvveed  Geometer,  287 

Chigoe,  493 

Chilognatha,  47 

Chilopoda,  46 

China  wax,  166 

Chinch-bug,  142 

Chinch-bug  Family,  142 

Chionaspis    furfurus,    165,    174;    C. 

pinifolise,  1/2,  174 
Chionobas  =  y£neis 
Chironomidae,  440 
Chironomus,  441 
Chitine,  52 
Choke-cherry,  245 
Chrysalis,  54 
Chrysididae,  632 
Chrysobothris  femorata,  549 
Chrysochraon  conspersum,  ill 
Chrysornelidae,  574 
Chrysomelids,  574 
Chrysopa,  181 

Chrysophanus,  390  ;  see  also  Heodes 
Chrysophanus  thoe,  390 
Chrysopidae,  180 
Chrysopila  thoracica,  456 
Chrysops,  455 
Cicada,    149;  C.  septendecim,    150; 

C.  tibicen,  151 
Cicada-killer,  653 
Cicadidae,  149 
Cicadula  exitiosa,  153 
Cicindela,  518 
Cicindelidae,  516 
Cicinnus  melsheimerii,  358 
Cigarette  Beetle,  553 
Ciidse,  554 

Cimbex  americana,  612 
Cimicifuga,  392 
Cingilia  catenaria,  279 
Cinura,  83 

Circular-seamed  Flies,  418,  470 
Cistelidae,  584 
Cisthene  unifascia,  326 
Citheronia  regalis,  346 
Citheroniidae,  343 
Classes,  4 
Classification  of  the  Coleoptera,  499; 

of   the    Heteroptera,    125;    of   the 

Homoptera,  148;  of  the  Hymenop- 

tera,  602 
Claspers,  66 
Clavate,  60 
Clavicornia,  497 


Clavus,  125 

Clear-winged  Moths,  259 

Clemensia  albata,  325 

Cleora  semiclusaria,  280 

Cleptes,  632 

Cleridae,  552 

Click-beetles,  544 

Clisiocampa,  360 ;  C.  americana, 
360  ;  C.  californica,  362  ;  C.  con- 
stricta,  362  ;  C.  disstria,  362 

Cloaked  Knotty-horn,  570 

Closed,  504 

Close-wings,  234 

Clothed-in-white  Footman,  325 

Clothes-moths,  257 

Clouded  Locust,  no 

Clouded  Sulphur,  385 

Cloudless  Sulphur,  387 

Clover,  371,  385,  386,  392,  537,  598 

Clover-hay  Worm,  233 

Clover  Hypena,  295 

Clover-leaf  Midge,  446 

Clover  Looping-owlets,  299 

Clover-root  Borer,  598 

Clover-seed  Midge,  446 

Clubionidae,  30 

Clubionids,  30 

Clypeal  suture,  500 

Clypeus,  500 

Cnemidotus,    522 

Cobweb  Weavers,  34 

Coccidae,  164 

Coccid-eating  Pyralid,  236 

Coccinella  novemnotata,  535 

Coccinellidae,  534 

Coccus  cacti,  166 

Cochineal,  166 

Cockroaches,  104,  106,  589,  590 

Cockscomb  Elm-gall,  161 

Cocoon,  54 

Codlin-moth,  241 

Ccelodasys,  269 

Coffee-tree,  347 

Coleoptera,  494 

Coleoptera  genuina,  515 

Colias  =  Eurymus  and  Zerene 

Collembola,  84 

Collops  quadrimaculatus,  552 

Colopha  ulmicola,  161 

Coloradia,  350 

Colorado  Potato-beetle,  576 

Colydiidae,  537 

Colymbetes,  525 

Common  Skippers,  368 

Common  Stag-beetle,  555 

Complete  metamorphosis,  51 


684 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Compositae,  402 
Compound  eyes,  58 
Compton  Tortoise,  403 
Conchylidae,  243 
'Conchylids,  243 
Conchylis  rutilana,  243 
Coniferous  trees,  flowers  of,  591 
Conifers,  280 
Conopidae,  476 
Conops  affinis,  476 
Conorhinus  sariguisugus,  137 
Conotrachelus  nenuphar,  593 
Coppers,  390 
Copris  Carolina,  558 
Coptocycla,  581 
Cordylurinae,  485 
Coreidse,  143 

Corisa,  129;  C.  undulata,  129 
Coriscus,  138;  C.  ferus,  138;  C.  sub- 

coleoptratus,  138 
Corisidae,  129 
Corimelaena,  146 
Corimelaenidae,  146 
Corium,   125 
Corn,  300,  563,  577,  641 
Cornicles,  67 
Corn-louse  Ant,  641 
Corn  Plant-louse,  158 
Corn  Root-worm,  577 
Corn  Silvanus,  538 
Corn-stalks,  565 
Cornus,  392 
Corrodentia,  98 
Corydalis  cornuta,  176 
Corylophidae,  534 
Cosmopolitan  Butterfly,  402 
Cosmosoma,  327;  C.  auge,  328 
Cossidae,  221 
Costa,  64 
Costal  margin,  64 
Cotalpa  lanigera,  562 
Cotton,  300 
Cotton-stainer,  141 
Cotton-worm,  301 
Cottony-cushion  Scale,  166 
Cow-killer  Ant,  648 
Cow-manure,  483,  485 
Coxa,  13,  62 
Coxal  cavitieSj  504 
Crabronidse,  656 
Crabronids,  656 
Crabro  singularis,  656 
Crabs,  11 
Crab  Spiders,  40 
Crambidae,  234 
Crambidia  pallida,  324 


Crambus,  235 

Crane-flies,  429 

Cray-fishes,  n 

Creeping  Water-bugs,  133 

Cremastogaster  lineolata,  643 

Creophilus  villosus,  532 

Ciepidodera  cucumeris,  578 

Crescent- spots,  398 

Cribellum,  23 

Cricket-like  Grasshoppers,  114 

Crickets,  104,  115 

Crioceris  asparagi,  575 

Crop,  71 

Croton,  410 

Croton-bug,  106  «-^ 

Cruciferae,  371 

Cruciferous  plants,  383 

Crustacea,  II 

Crustaceans,  II 

Cryptohypnus  abbreviatus,  546 

Cryptophagidae,  538 

Cryptus  extrematis,  624 

Ctenucha  virginica,  327 

Cubitus,  64 

Cuckoo-flies,  632 

Cucujidae,  537 

Cucujids,  537 

Cucujus  clavipes,  538 

Cucullia,  302;  C.  speyeri,  302 

Cucumber,  577,  578 

Cucumber-beetles,  577 

Cucumber  Flea-beetle,  578 

Culex,  437 

Culicidae,  437 

Cuneus,  125 

Cupesidas,  553 

Curculionidae,  593 

Curculios,  593 

Curled  dock,  390 

Curled-thread  Weavers  with  Irregular 

Webs,  32 
Curled-thread  Weavers  with  Regular 

Webs,  38 

Currant,  244,  280,  613 
Currant-borer,  261 
Currant  Span-worm,  279 
Currant-worm,  613 
Cut-worms,  305 
Cyaniris  pseudargiolus,  391 
Cybister,  525 
Cychrus,  520 
Cyclorrhapha,  418,  470 
Cycnia  egle,  319 
Cydnidae,  145 
Cylas  formicarius,  595 
Cyllene  pictus,  571;  C.  robiniae,  570 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


685 


Cymatophoridae,  2gl 
Cymatophorids,  291 
Cynipidae,  615 

Dactylopius,  166 

Daddy  Long  Legs,  19 

Daggers,  307 

Dainty  Sulphur,  387 

Damsel-bugs,  138 

Danais  =  Anosia 

Dance-flies,  466 

Darkling  Beetles,  582 

Darning-needles,  90 

Darwinian  theory  of  natural  selec- 
tion, 200 

Dascyllidae,  544 

Datana,  264;  D.  ministra,  265 

Dead  animal  matter,  559,  583 

Decaying  fruit,  487 

Decaying  vegetable  matter,  484,  538, 
565 

Deilephila  Hneata,  337 

Deltoids,  295 

Dendroctonus  tenebrans,  598 

Dermestes  lardarius,  539 

Dermestidae,  538 

Dermestids,  538 

Derodontidae,  542 

Desmia  funeralis,  230 

Desmocerus  palliatus,  570 

Destructive  Leaf-hopper,  153 

Development  without  metamorpho- 
sis, 50 

Devil's-needles,  90 

Dexiinae,  482 

Diabrotica,  577  ;  D.  duodecimpunc- 
tata,  577;  D.  longicornis,  577;  D. 
soror,  577;  D.  vittata,  577 

Diapheromera  femorata,  108 

Diaspinae,  171 

Diastictis  ribearia,  279 

Diastrophus  nebulosus,  620 

Dicaelus,  521 

Dicerca  divaricata,  549 

Dictynidae,  32 

Dictynids,  32 

Diervilla,  339 

Digger-wasps,  644 

Digitus,  500 

Dilophogaster  californica,  628 

Dineutes,  527 

Diopsinae,  486 

Dioptidse,  262 

Dioptids,  262 

Diplosis  resinicola,  447  ;  D.  tritici, 
447 


Diptera,  413 

Discal  cell,  198 

Discal  vein,  199 

Dissosteira  Carolina,  in 

Diver,  304 

Diverse-line  Moth,  285 

Divining  Atropos,  99 

Dixa,  436 

Dixa-midges,  436 

Dixidae,  436 

Dobson,  175,  176,  177 

Dog-day  Harvest  fly,  151 

Dog-flea,  492 

Dog's-head,  386 

Dolichopodidae,  467 

Dolichopus,  467;  D.  lobatus,  467 

Dolomedes,  42 

Donacia,  575 

Dorcus  parallelus,  555 

Doryphora  clivicollis,  576;  D.  decem- 

lineata,  576 
Dragon-flies,  89,  90 
Drassidae,  29 
Drassids,  29 
Drassus  saccatus,  29 
Drasteria,  299;  D.  crassiuscula,  299; 

D.  erechtea,  299 
Drasterius  elegans,  546 
Drepanidae,  289 
Drepanulidae  =  Drepanidae 
Dried  fruits,  236 
Drosophila  ampelophila,  487 
Dryocampa  rubicunda,  349 
Dry  vegetable  matter,  583 
Dull-eyed  Grayling,  411 
Dung,  583 
Dung-flies,  485 
Dye-stuffs,  166 
Dynastes  grantii,   563  ;  D.  hercules, 

563;  D.  tityrus,  563 
Dysdercus  suturellus,  141 
Dyspteris,  283;  D.  abortivaria,  286 
Dytiscidae,  523 
Dytiscus,  525 

Eacles  =  Basilona 

Ears,  483 

Earth-boring  Dung-beetles,  559   • 

Earwigs,  102,  103 

Edema  albifrons,  266 

ERR.  53 

Egg-mass  of  a  Mantis,  107 

Egg-sac,  24 

Eight-spotted  Forester,  314 

Elaphidion  villosum,  571 

Elateridae,  544 


686 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Elaters,  544 

Elder,  570 

Electric-light  Bugs,  132 

Eleodes,  583 

Elis  quadrinotata,  649 

Ellema  harrisii,  334 

Elliptical  Goldenrod  Gall,  486 

Elm,  218,  267,  308,  334,  353,  403 

Elytra,  494 

Embolium,  125 

Emesa  longipes,  136 

Emesidae,  136 

Emperors,  410 

Empididae,  466 

Empoa  rosae,  154 

Empodium,  420 

Empretia  stimulea,  225 

Enchenopa  binotata,  155 

Encoptolophus  sordidus,  no 

Endomychidae,  535 

Engraver-beetles,  596 

Ennomidae,  277 

Ennomids,  277 

Ennomos  magnarius,  278 

Ensign-flies,  626 

Epargyreus  tityrus,  370 

Epeiridas,  35 

Ephemerida,  86 

Ephemeridae,  87 

Ephestia  kiihniella,  236 

Ephydra,  487 

Eph'ydrinse,  487 

Epicaerus  imbricatus,  592 

Epicauta,   588  ;  E.  cinerea,  589  ;   E. 

pennsylvanica,     588 ;     E.     vittata, 

589 

Epilachna  borealis,  535 
Epimeron,  502 
Epipharynx,  61 
Episternum,  502 
Erannis  tiliaria,  280 
Erax,  461 
Erax  apicalis,  460 
Erebus  odora,  297 
Ericerus  pe-la,  166 
Eriocampa  cerasi,  613 
Eristalis,  471 
Erotylidae,  536 
Erotylids,  536 
Erythroneura  vitis,  154 
Estigmene  acraea,  321 
Eubyia  =  Biston 
Euchaetes  =  Cycnia 
Euchceca  albovittata,  283 
Euclea  delphinii,  224 
Eucleidae,  223 


Eudamus,  370  ;  see  also  Epargyreus 

and  Thorybes 
Eudamus  proteus,  370 
Eudeilinea  herminiata,  288 
Eudryas  =  Euthisanotia 
Eudule  mendica,  285 
Eufitchia  =  Diastictis 
Eugonia  j-album,  403 
Eulimacodes  scapha,  224 
Eulonchus,  459 
Eumenes  fraternus,  658 
Eunienia  atala,  394 
Eumenidae,  658 
Euphanessa  =  Eudule 
Euphoria,    565;    E.    inda,    565;     E. 

melancholica,  566 
Euphydryas  phaeton,  399 
Euplexoptera,  102 
Euplceids,  397 
Euplceinae,  397 
Eupsalis  minuta,  595 
Eupsyche  m-album,  394 
Euptoieta  claudia,  400 
Eurema  lisa,  386 
Eorygaster  alternatus,  146 
Eurymus  eurytheme,  386;  E.   philo- 

dice,  385 

Eurypelma  hentzii,  28 
Eustroma  diversilineata,  285 
Euthisanotia  grata,  315;  E.  unio,  316 
Euvanessa  antiopa,  403 
Evania  appendigaster,  628 
Evaniidae,  626 
Everes  comyntas,  392 
Evergreen  Bag-worm,  220 
Evergreen  Cleora,  280 
Everlasting,  402 
Evolution  and  Taxonomy,  203 
Exetastes  fascipennis,  622 
External  anatomy  of  insects,  56 
Exuviae,  53 
Eyed  Brown,  411 
Eyed  Elater,  547 
Eyprepia,  323;  E.  virgo,  324 

Falcate  Orange-tip,  385 
Fall  Canker-worm,  276 
Fall  Web-worm,  321 
False  Crane-flies,  448 
Families,  4 
Fat,  71 

Feather-wing  Beetles,  533 
Femur,  13,  62 
Feniseca  tarquinius,  390 
Fibrous  Oak-apple,  618 
Fiery  Hunter,  519 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


687 


Fig-eater,  566 

Filiform,  60 

Fir,  572 

Firefly  Family,  550 

Firstborn  Geometer,  274 

Fish,  132 

Fish-moths,  82,  83 

Five-dotted  Tortoise,  581 

Flabellate,  500 

Flannel-moths,  218 

Flat-bugs,  139 

Flat-headed  Apple-tree  Borer,  549 

Flat-headed  Larvae,  548 

Flea-beetles,  578 

Fleas,  490 

Flesh-flies,  482 

Flies,  413 

Fiouring-mills,  236 

Flower-beetles,  564 

Flower-bugs,  140 

Flying  Spiders,  25 

Foenus,  628 

Footman-moths,  324 

Forest  trees,  281,^299,  308,   318,   320. 

346,  353,  355,  356,  598 
Forficulidae,  103 
Forked  Fungus-beetle,  583 
Formica  difficilis,  639,  640,  641;    F. 

exsectoides,  640;  F.  rufa,  640;  F. 

subsericea,  641 
Formicidae,  640 
Formicina,  633 
Fossores,  644 

Four-footed  Butterflies,  395 
Four-lined  Leaf-bug,  141 
Frenataa,  201,  216 
Frenate  Lepidoptera,  204,  216 
Frenulum,  198 

Frenulum-conservers,  205,  290 
Frenulum-losers,  206,  290 
Fritillaries,  399 
Frog-hoppers,  152 
Fruit,  577 

Fruit-trees,  275,  281,  355,  362,  598 
Frustrating  Retinia,  243 
Fulgoridae,  151 
Fuller's  Rose-beetle,  592 
Fungi,  161,  538,  583,  585 
Fungus-gnats,  442 
Funnel-web  Weavers,  30 
Furs,  538 

Galea,  62,  500 
Galerita  janus,  521 
Galgulidae,  133 
Galgulus  oculatus,  133 


Galleria  mellonella,  233 

Galleriidae,  233 

Gall-flies,  615 

Gall-gnats,  444 

Gall-inhabiting  Hymenoptera,  601 

Galls,  44,  616 

Ganglia,  69 

Garden  vegetables,  305,  592 

Gartered  Plume,  238 

Gastropacha  =  Phyllodesma 

Gastrophilus  equi,  477 

Gelechia  cerealella,  258;    G.    gallae- 

solidaginis,   486;     G.     pinifoliella, 

252 

Genealogical  tree,  2 
Generalized,  200 
Generalized  Frenatae,  203,  204 
Geniculate,  500 
Genus,  3 
Geometridae,  287 
Geometrids,  270 
Geometrina,  270 
Georyssida^,  543 
Geotrupes,  559 
Giant  Oak-gall,  620 
Giant  Silk-worms,  350 
Giant  Skippers,  365 
Giant  Stag-beetle,  555 
Giant  Water-bugs,  131 
Giant  Whip-scorpion,  18 
Gipsy  Moth,  312 
Gizzard,  71 
Glaucus  Form,  379 
Glossa,  501 
Gnaphalium,  402 
Gnaihium,  588 
Gnophaela,  316;  G.  hopfferi,  317;  G. 

vermiculata,  316 
Goat-weed,  410 
Goat- weed  Butterfly,  410 
Golden-eyes,  181 
Golden-rod,  138,  302,   551,  571,  587, 

588 

Goldsmith-beetle,  562 
Goniodes  stylifer,  101 
Gooseberry,  407,  613 
Gooseberry  Span-worm,  279 
Gossamer-winged  Butterflies,  388 
Grain,  142,  258,  304,  596 
Grandfather  Graybeards,  19 
Grape,   152,   154,  226,  228,  238,  286, 

303,  313,  315,   562,   565,   569,   578, 

592 

Grape  Leaf-folder,  230 
Grape  Phylloxera,  160 
Grape-vine  Epimenis,  315 


688 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Grape-vine  Leaf-hopper,  153 

Grapholithidae,   240 

Grapholithids,  240 

Grapta  =  Eugonia  and  Polygonia 

Grass,  234,  375 

Grasshoppers,  104 

Gray  Comma,  405 

Gray-veined  White,  383 

Great  Purple  Hair-streak,  393 

Great  Spangled  Fritillary,  400 

Green  Comma,  404 

Green  Corn,  565 

Green  Geometrids,  287 

Green-striped  Maple-worm,  349 

Ground-beetles,  518 

Grubs,  494 

Gryllidae,  115 

Gryllotalpa  borealis,  117 

Gryllus  abbreviaius,  118 

Guest- bees,  670 

Guest-gall-flies,  621 

Guest-gall-gnat,  446 

Guest-wasps,  657 

Gula,  500 

Gular  sutures,  500 

Gyreius,  527;  G.  sinuatus,  527 

Gyrinidae,  525 

Hackberry,  156 
Hadenoecus,  1 14 
Haematobia  serrata,  483 
Haematopinus    asini,   147;    H.  eury- 

sternus,  147 

Haematopis  grataria,  287 
Hair-snakes,  53 
Hair-streaks,  392 
Halictus,  666 
Haliplidae,  522 
Haliplids,  522 
Haliplus,  522 
Halisidota  caryae,  320 
Halteres,  413 
Haltica  chalybea,  578 
Handmaid  Moths,  264 
Haploa,  319;  H.  contigua,  319 
Harlequin  Cabbage-bug,  145 
Harlequin      Milkweed     Caterpillar 

3'9 

Harrnonia  pini,  261 
Harpalus  caliginosus,  521 
Harrisina,  227;    H.  americana,  227; 

H.  coracina,  228;  H.  texana,  228 
Harris's  Sphinx,  334 
Harvestmen,  12,  19 
Harvest-mites,  493 
Hawk-moths,  329 


Hawthorn,  338 

Hawthorn  Tingis,  139 

Head,  499 

Head  and  its  appendages,  58 

Heart,  67 

Heliconians,  397 

Heliconiinae,  397 

Heliothis  armigera,  300 

Hemaris    diffinis,    338;    H.    thysbe, 
33S 

Hemileuca  maia,  342 

Hemileucidae,  342 

Hemileucids,  342 

Hemerobians,  181 

Hemerobiidae,  181 

Hemiptera,  121 

Hens,  100 

Heodes  hypophlaeas,  390 

Hepialidae,  215 

Hepialus,  215 

Herbaceous  plants,  318 

Herbivorous  Lady-bug,  535 

Hesperia  montivaga,  372 

Hesperiidae,  368 

Hesperiina,  364 

Hesperiinae,  369 

Hessian-fly,  446 

Heteroceridae,  543 

Heterocerus,  543 

Heteromera,  498 

Heterophleps,  283 

Heteroptera,  122,  123 

Hexapoda,  48 

Hickory,  265,  299,  320,  346,  353,  393, 

592 

Hickory-nuts,  593 
Hickory  Tiger-moth,  320 
Hippobosca,  488 
Hippobosca  equina,  488 
Hippoboscidae,  487 
Histeridae,  541 
Hoary  Alder,  216 
Hog-caterpillar  of  the  Vine,  336 
Holcaspis  centricola,  619;  H.  globu- 

lus,  619;  H.  inanis,  619 
Homoptera,  122,  148 
Homoptera  lunata,  296 
Honey-ant,  642 
Honey-bee,  673 
Honey-comb,  234 
Honey-dew,  157,  162,  392 
Honey-locust,  347 
Honeysuckle,  339 
Honey-tubes,  67 
Hooded  Owlets,  302 
Hook-tip  Moths,  289 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Hop,  401 

Hop-merchant,  405 

Hop-vine  Hypena,  296 

Horned  Corydalis,  176 
.Jiorned  Passalus,  556 
**VHorn-fly,  483 
!_,_  Horn-tails,  614 
J    Horse,  488 
?7±?Horse  Bot-fly,  477 
'       Horse-flies,  453 

House-fly,  482 

Hybernia  =  Erannis 

Hybrid  Graylings,  412 

Hybrid  Purple,  407 

Hydriomenidae,  282 

Hydriomenids,  282 

Hydrobatidae,  135 

Hydrocharis,  528;  H.  obtusatus,  529 

Hydrophilidae,  527 

Hydrophilus,    528;    H.   triangularis, 
528 

Hydropsyche,  189 

Hydropsychinae,  189 

Hydroscaphidae,  533 

Hygrotrechus  conformis,  135 

Hylesinus  trifolii,  598 

Hymenoptera,  599 

Hypatus  bachmannii,  397 

Hypena  humuli,  296;   H  .  scabra,  295 

Hyperchiria  =  Automeris 

Hypermetamorphosis,  587 

Hyphantria  cunea,  321 

Hypoderma  bovis,  478;    H.   lineata, 
478 

Hypopharynx,  61 

Hypoprepiafucosa,  325;  H.  miniata, 
325 

Hyptiotes  cavatus,  38 

Human-flea,  492 

Humeral  angle,  64,  217 

Humeral  veins,  360 

Humpbacked  Flies,  475 

Icerya  purchasi,  166 
Ichneumon-flies,  621 
Ichneumonidae,  621 
Ichthyura,  268;  I.  inclusa,  268 
-ids,  8 

Ilia  Underwing,  298 
Imbricated  Snout-beetle,  592 
Imperial-moth,  346 
-inae.  8 

Incisalia  niphon,  393 
Incomplete  metamorphosis,  50 
Incurvaria  acerifoliella,  255 
Indian-meal  Moth,  236 


Inner  margin,  64 

Innoxious  Black-fly,  453 

Inocellia,  179 

Inquilines,  621,  670 

Insects,  48,  49 

Internal  anatomy  of  insects,  67 

lo-moth,  351 

Iphiclides   ajax,    379;    I.  ajax  ajax, 

380;    I.    ajax   marcellus,    379;    I. 

ajax  telamonides,  379 
I  ps  fasciatus,  542 
Isabella  Tiger-moth,  322 
Isomera,  496 
Isoptera,  95 
Isosoma  hordei,  629 
Itch-mite,  43 

Jalysus  spinosus,  143 
Japyx,  84 

Jasoniades  glaucus,  378;  J.  glaucus 
glaucus,  379;  J.  glaucus  turnus, 
378 

assidae,  153 

igger,  493 

oint-worm,  629 

ugatae,  201,  214 

ugate  Lepidoptera,  204 

ugum,  198 

umping  Plant-lice,  155 

umping  Spiders,  42 

une-bugs,  560,  566 

uniper  Web-wortn,  243 

Katydids,  113 
Kermes,  168 
Kings,  96 
Koochabee,  487 

Labial  palpi,  62,  501 
Labium,  61,  501 
Labrum,  6l 
Lac,  166 
Lac  dye,  166 
Lace-bugs,  139 
Lace-winged  Flies,  180 
Lachnosterna,  560 
Lachnus,  160 
Lacinia,  500 

Lacosoma  chiridota,  359 
Lacosomidae,  357 
Lady-bugs,  534 
Laertias  philenor,  375 
Laetilia  coccidivora,  236 
Lagoa  =  Megalopyge 
Lagriidae,  584 
Lamellate,  60 


690 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


Lamellicornia,  498 

Lamellicorn  Beetles,  556 

Lamellicorn  Leaf-chafers,  559 

Lamellicorn  Scavengers,  556 

Lamiids,  572 

Lamiinae,  572 

Lampyridae,  550 

Lampyrids,  550 

Land-bugs,  124 

Langton's  Forester,  314 

Languria,  536;  L.  mozardi,  537 

Lantern-fly  Family,  151 

Lappet-caterpillars,  359,  360 

Larch  Lappet,  363 

Larder  Beetle,  539 

Large  Carpenter-bee,  670 

Large  intestine,  71 

Large  Metal-mark,  394 

Larger  Empty  Oak-apple,  619 

Larra  terminata,  652 

Larridae,  652 

Larrids,  652 

Larva,  53 

Lasiocampidae,  359 

Lasiocampids,  359 

Lasioderma  serricorne,  553 

Lasius   alienus,    158  ;    L.    brunneus, 

641 

Lathridiidse,  542 
Laverna  sabalella,  251 
Leaf-beetles,  574 
Leaf-bugs,   140 
Leaf-cutter  Bees,  667 
Leaf-hoppers,  153 
Leaf-rollers,  239 
Leaf-rolling  Weevils,  591 
Lebia  grandis,  520 
Lecanium,   169;    L.  hemisphaericum, 

171;  L.  hesperidurn,  170;  L.  oleae, 

169,  170 
Legs,  62 

Leguminosae,  371,  385,  392 
Leistotrophus  cingulatus,  533 
Lema  trilineata,  575 
Lemoniids,  394 
Lemoniinse,  394 
Leopard-moth,  223 
Lepidoptera.  191 
Lepisma  saccharina,  83 
Leptidae,  456 
Leptinidae,  529 
Leptinus  testaceus,  529 
Leptis,  458 

Leptysma  marginicolle,  in 
Lettuce,  341 
Lettuce  Earth-louse,  159 


Leucania  unipuncta,  303 

Leucarctia  =  Estigmene 

Leucospis,  629;  L.  affinis,  630 

Libellulidae,  90 

Libythea  =  Hypatus 

Libytheinae,  396 

Lice,  121,  147 

Lichens,  328 

Light-loving  Anomala,  562 

Ligula,  501 

Ligyrus  rugiceps,  563 

Limacodes  =  Eulimacodes 

Limacodidae  =  Eucleidae 

Limenitis  =  Basilarchia 

Lime-tree  Winter-moth,  280 

Limnobates  lineata,  136 

Limnobatidae,  136 

Limochores  pontiac,  373 

Limothrips  poaphagus,  119 

Linear  mines.  249 

Liparidae  =  Lymantriidae 

Lipoptera,  488 

Lithocolletis  hamadryadella,  250 

Lithosia  bicolor,  325 

Lithosiidae,  324 

Lithosiids,  324 

Little  Sulphur,  386 

Little-winged  Jugates,  216 

Live-oaks,  263 

Lobsters,  II 

Locust-borer,  570 

Locust,  insects  infesting,  370,  571 

Locustidae,  112 

Locusts,  108 

Locust-tree  Carpenter-moth,  222 

Lonchoptera,  469 

Lonchopteridae,  469 

Long-beaks,  396 

Long-horned  Beetles,  567 

Long-horned  Bugs,  124 

Long-horned  Grasshoppers,  112 

Long-horned  Leaf -beetles,  575 

Long-horned  Orthorrhapha,  416 

Long-legged  Emesa,  136 

Long-legged  Flies,  467 

Long-tailed  Skipper,  370 

Long-tongued  Bees,  666 

Lophoderus  politana,  245 

Louse-flies,  487 

Lucanidae,  554 

Lucanus  dama,  555;  L.  elephus,  555 

Luna  Moth,  353 

Lunate  Similar-wing,  296 

Lung-sacs,  13,  22 

Lycaena  =  Cyaniris  and  Everes 

Lycaenidae,  388 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


691 


Lycaeninae,  389 
Lycomorpha  pholus,  327 
Lycosa,  41 
Lycosidze,  40 
Lygaeidae,  142 
Lymantriidae,  308 
Lymexylidae,  553 
Lymexylon  navale,  553 
Ly  reman,  151 

Machilis,  84 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  561 

Maia-moth,  342 

Malachiidae,  552 

Mallophaga,  100 

Mamestra  picta,  305 

Mandibles,  13,  61 

Manlidae,  106 

Mantis-like  Neuroptera,  179 

Mantispa,  179 

Mantispldae,  179 

Many-dotted  Apple-worm,  303 

Many-plume  Moths,  238 

Maple,  223,  278,  298,   308,   349,  353, 

364-  549 

Maple-leaf  Cutter,  255 
March-flies,  449 
Margaronia  hyalinata,  231 
Marginal  cells,  607 
Marsh-treaders,  136 
Martial's  Dusky-wing,  371 
Marumba  modesta,  333 
Masaridae,  657 

Masked  Bed-bug  Hunter,  137 
Mason-wasps.  658 
Maxillae,  13,  61 
Maxillary  palpi,  62,  500 
May-beetles,  560,  649 
May-flies,  86,  87 
Meadow-browns,  410 
Meadow  Grasshoppers,  113 
Meal,  236 
Meal-moth,  233 
Meal-worm,  583 
Mealy-bugs,  164,  166 
Measuring-worms,  270 
Mecoptera,  184 
Media,  64 

Mediterranean  Flour-moth,  236 
Megachile,  667;  M.  acuta,  667 
Megalodachne,  536;  M.  fasciata, 

536;  M.  heros,  536 
Megalopyge  crispata,  218 
Megalopygidae,  218 
Meganostoma  =  Zerene 
Megathymidae,  365 


Megathymus  cofaqui,  367;  M.  neu 
mcegeni,  368;  M.  yucca,  367 

Melandryidae,  585 

Melanoplus  femur-rubrum,  no;  M. 
spretus,  no 

Melitaea  =  Euphydryas 

Melitaeids,  398 

Melittia  ceto,  262 

Melee,  588;  M.  angusticollis,  588 

Meloidae,  586 

Melon,  577,  578 

Melon-worm,  231 

Melophagus  ovinus,  488 

Melsheimer's  Sack-bearer,  358 

Membracidae,  154 

Membrane,  125 

Mentum,  501 

Mesonotum,   501 

Mesosternum,  501 

Mesothorax,  62 

Metallic  Wood-borers,  548 

Metamorphoses  of  insects,  50 

Metanotum,  501 

Metasternum,  501 

Metatarsus,  13,  63 

Metathorax,  6?. 

Microcentrum  retinervis,  113 

Microdon,  472 

Microfrenatae,  205 

Microgaster,  626 

Micropterygidae,  216 

Micropteryx,  216,  219 

Midaidae,  461 

Midas,  462 

Midas-flies,  461 

Midge-like  Flies,  417 

Midges,  440 

Milk-weed,  397 

Milkweeds,  574,  577,  581,  652 

Millipedes,  45,  47 

Mimesidae,  655 

Mimesids,  655 

Misumena  vatia,  40 

Mites,  12,  42 

Mitoura  damon,  393 

Mocha-stone  Moths,  268 

Modest  Sphinx,  333 

Mole  Crickets,  117 

Molting,  52 

Monarch,  397,  408 

Moniliform,  60 

Monobia  quadridens,  660 

Monocteniidae,  273 

Monocteniids,  273 

Monohammus  confusor,  572 

Monommidae,  584 


692 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Monomorium  pharonis,  643 

Mononyx  stygicus,  134 

Monosiegia  rosae,  613 

Monotomidae,  542 

Mordellidae,  586 

Morning-glory,  580 

Mosquitoes,  437 

Mossy  Rose-gall,  621 

Moth-like  Flies,  428 

Moths,  195,  257 

Mound-building  Ant,  640 

Mournful  Thyris,  329 

Mourning-cloak,  403 

Mourning  Horse-fly,  455 

Mouth- parts,  60,  500 

Mud-daubers,  651 

Mulberry,  341 

Mule-killers,  106 

Murgantia  histronica,  145 

Musca  domestica,  482 

Muscidae,  479 

Muscids,  479 

Muscinae,  482 

Muscles,  67 

Muscular  system,  69 

Mustard,  578 

Mutilla,  648 

Mutillidse,  648 

Mycetophagidae,  538 

Mycetophilidae,  442 

Myriapoda,  45 

Myrmecocystus  melliger,  642 

Myrmeleori,  182 

Myrmeleonidae,  182 

Myrmicidae,  642 

Myrmicids,  642 

Mysus  cerasi,  159;  M.  persicse,  159 

Nabidse,  138 

Naked  Clothes-moth,  258 
Nathalis  iole,  387 
Natural  classification,  I 
Naucoridae,  133 
Necrophorus,  530 
Nectaries,  67 
Nectarines,  594 
Negro-bugs,  146 
Neides  muticus,  143 
Nematocera,  416 
Nematus  ribesii,  613 
Nemistrinidae,  459 
Nemognatha,  588 
Neonympha  =  Satyrodes 
Nepa  apiculata,  131 
Nepidae,  130 
Nervous  system,  67,  72 


Nettle,  401,  403,   580 

Net-winged  Midges,  432 

Neuroptera,  175 

Neuroterus,  617 

Nimble-flies,  482 

Nine-spotted  Lady-bug,  535 

Nisoniades  =  Thanaos 

Nitidulidae,  541 

Noctua  c-nigrum,  306 

Noctuidae,  293 

Noctuids,  293 

Noctuids  and  their  allies,  205 

Nolophana  =  Balsa 

Northern  Brenthid,  595 

Northern  Cloudy-wing,  371 

Nostrils,  483 

Notched-wing  Geometer,  278 

Notodontidae,  263 

Notolophus,    308,    310;   N.   antiqua, 

311;    N.    definita,.  311;  N.    leuco- 

stigma,  310 
Notonecta,  130 
Notonectidae,  130 
Notoxus,  586 
Notum,  501 
Nut-weevils,  593 
Nycteribiidae,  489 
Nymph,  54 
Nymphalidse,  395 
Nymphalinae.  398 
Nysson,  654 
Nyssonidae,  654 
Nyssonids,  654 

Oak,  beetles  infesting,  549,  571,  595; 
caterpillars  infesting,  218,  223,  224, 
225,  245,  250,  265,  266,  267,  293, 
299,  308,  345,  347,  353,  358,  362, 
364,  393.  394:  ga'ls  on,  618 

Oak-pruner,  571 

Oak  Ugly-nest  Tortricid,  245 

Oberea  bimaculata,  573 

Obsolete,  57 

Ocelli,  59,  199 

Ochre  Dagger,  307 

Ocneria  =  Porthetria 

Odonata,  89 

Odontomyia,  456 

Odontota  rubra,  580 

Odynerus,  659 

CEcanthus  niveus,  118 

CEdemasia  concinna,  267 

GEdemeridae,  585 

GEneis  semidea,  412 

CEstridae,  477 

OEstrus  ovis,  478 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


693 


Oiketicus  abbotii,  220 

Oil-beetles,  588 

Old  Tussock-moth,  311 

Olfersia,  488;  O.  americana,  488 

Olive  Hair-streak,  393 

Omus,  518 

One-dotted  Tortoise,  581 

Onion-fly,  484 

Oniscidae,  12 

Ootheca  of  a  Cockroach,  106 

Open,  504 

Ophion,  624 

Opsiccetus  personatus,  137 

Orange,   592 

Orange- striped  Oak-worm,  348 

Orange  Sulphur,  386 

Orange-tips,  384 

Orb  Weavers,  35 

Orchards,  310 

Orders,  4 

Orders  of  the  Hexapoda,  76,  Si 

Orgyia  =  Notolophus 

Ormenis  septentrionalis,  152 

Orneodes  hexadactyla,  238 

Orneodidae,  238 

Orphnephila  testacea,  449 

Orphnephilidae,  449 

Ortalinse,  485 

Orthezia,  168 

Orthoptera,  104 

Orthorrhapha,  416,  427 

Orthosoma  brunneum,  569 

Osage  Orange,  341 

Osmateria,  376 

Osmoderma     eremicola,      565;      O. 

scabra,  565 
Othniidae,  584 
Othnius,  584 
Otiorhynchidae,  592 
Outer  lobe,  62,  500 
Outer  margin,  64 
Ovipositor,  66 
Owlet-moths,  293 
Owls,  488 
Ox,  101 
Oxwarble,  478 

Oxyptilus  periscelidactylus,  238 
Oyster-shell  Bark-louse,  171 

Pacific  Peach-tree  Borer,  261 
Painted  Beauty,  401 
Painted  Footman,  325 
Painted  Hickory-borer,  571 
Paleacrita  vernata,  275 
Pale  Footman,  324 
Palmetto-leaf  Miner,  251 


Palpifer,  500 

Palpus,  13 

Pamphila  =  Limochores 

Pamphilinae,  372 

Pandorus  Sphinx,  336 

Panorpa,  185 

Panorpidae,  184 

Pantarbes  capito,  464 

Pantographa  limata,  231 

Papaw,  380 

Papilio,377  ;  see  also  Iphiclides,  Ja- 

soniades,  and  Laertias 
Papilionidae,  375 
Papilionina,  373 
Papilioninae,  376 
Papilio  polyxenes,  377 
Papirius  fuscus,  85 
Paraglossae,  501 
Parallelia  bistriaris,  298 
Parandra  brunnea,  567 
Parapsides,  603 
Paraptera,  63,  495,  502 
Parasita,  147 
Parasitica,  122 
Parasitic  Hymenoptera,  601 
Parnassiinae,  380 
Parnassians,  375,  380 
Parnassius,  380 
Parnidae,  543 
Parsnip,  377 
Passalus  cornutus,  556 
Pastures,  303 
•Patagia,  199 
Patella,  13 

Peach,  260,  265,  549,  594 
Peach-tree  Aphis,  159 
Peach-tree  Borer,  260,    261 
Pear,  223,  224,  407,  569 
Pear-leaf  Blister,  44 
Pearl  Wood-nymph,  316 
Pear-tree  Psylla,  156 
Pear-tree  Slug,  613 
Peas,  300,  582 
Pea-weevil,  581 
Pea-weevil  Family,  581 
Pectinate,  60 
Pediculidae,  147 
Pedipalpi,  13,  17 
Pegomyia  vicina,  484 
Pe-la,  166 
Pelecinidae,  631 

Pelecinus,  631  ;  P.  polyturator,  631 
Pelidnota  punctata,  562 
Pelocoris  femorata,  133 
Pelogonus  americanus,  134 
Pelopceus,  651;  P.  cementarius,  651 


694 


Pemphredonidae,  655 

Pemphredonids,  655 

Pencetia  viridans,  21 

Pen-marked  Sphinx,  334 

Pennsylvania  Blister-beetle,  588 

Pentatomidae,  144 

Penthe,  585;    P.  obliquata,  585;    P. 

pimelia,  585 

Pepper-and-salt  Currant-moth,  280 
Pepsis  formosa,  650 
Pericopidae,  316 
Pericopids,  316 
Periodical  Cicada,  150 
Perlidae,  93 
Pernicious  Scale,  171 
Perophora  =  Cicinnus 
Petrophora  =  Eustroma 
Perophoridae  =  Lacosomidae 
Phalacridae,  534 
Phalangidea,  19 
Phanaeus  carnifex,  558 
Pharynx,  71 
Phasmidae,  108 
Phasmomantis  Carolina,  107 
Pheosia  rimosa,  263 
Philampelus  pandorus,  336 
Philanthidae,  654 
Philanthids,  654 
Philosamia  cynthia,  357 
Phlegethontius  Carolina,   335;  P.  ce- 

leus,  335 

Pholisora  catullus,  372 
Phora,  475 
Phorbia  brassicae,  484;  P.  ceparum, 

484 

Phoridae,  475 
Phryganeidae,  187 
Phrynidae,  19 
Phrynus,  19 
Phycitidae,  235 
Phycitids,  235 
Phyciodes,  399 

Phyllodesma,  360;  P.  americana,  363 
Phyllotreta  vittata,  578 
Phylloxera  vastatrix,  160 
Phylogeny  of  ihe  lepidoptera,  199 
Phymata  wolffii,  138 
Phymatidae,  138 
Phryganidia  californica,  262 
Physonota  unipunctata,  581 
Physopoda,  119 
Phytophaga,  498 
Phytoptus,  43 
Phytoptus  pyri,  44 
Pieridae,  381 
Pierids,  381 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Pieris,  382  ;  see  also  Pontia 

Pieris  oleracea,  382;  P.  rapae,  383 

Pigeon  Horn-tail,  615 

Pinacate-bugs,  583 

Pine,  243,  252,  334,  549,  567,  569, 
572 

Pine-cone  Willow- gall,  445 

Pine-leaf  Miner,  252 

Pine-leaf  Scale,  174 

Pine-leaf  Tube-builder,  245 

Pine  Sesian,  261 

Pinipestis  zimmermanni,  236 

Piophila  casei,  486 

Piophiliriae,  486 

Pipunculidae,  473 

Pipunculus,  473 

Pitch-pine,  243,  252 

Pitch-pine  Retinia,  242 

Pith,  586 

Pithy  Blackberry-gall,  620 

Plaginotus  speciosus,  570 

Plant-eating  Hymenoptera,  601 

Plant-lice,  156,  391 

Platypeza,  474 

Platypezidae,  474 

Platypsylla  castoris,  529 

Platypsyllidae,  529 

Platypterygidae  =  Drepanidae 

Platypteryx  arcuata,  291  ;  P.  geni- 
cula,  291  ;  P.  siculifera,  291 

Plecoptera,  93 

Plectoptera,  86 

Plemyria  hastata,  283 

Pleurum,  501 

Plodia  interpunctella,  236 

Plum,  334,  353,  356,  407,  593 

Plum  Curculio,  593 

Plume-moths,  237 

Plusia,  301  ;  P.  brassicae,  301  ;  P. 
simplex,  301 

Pcecilocapsus  lineatus,  141 

Polistes,  590,  662 

Pollen,  565 

Polybia,  662 

Polyergus  rufescens,  639 

Polygonia,  404  ;  P.  comma,  405  ;  P. 
comma  dryas,  405  ;  P.  comma 
harrisii,  405  ;  F.  faunus,  404 ;  P. 
interrogationis,  405  ;  P.  interro- 
gationis  umbrosa,  406  ;  P.  interro- 
gationis fabricii,  406  ;  P.  progne, 
405 

Polyphemus-moth,  352 

Polyporus,  583 

Polystoechotes  punctatus,  181 

Polythalamous,  620 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Pomace- flies,  487 

Pompilidse,  650 

Pond-lily,  304 

Poneridae,  642 

Ponerids,  642 

Pontia  protodice,  384 

Poplar,  223,  2.68,  275,  363,  403,  406, 

569 

Poplar  Mocha-stone  Moth,  268 
Porthetria  dispar,  312 
Posterior  lobe,  420 
Postmedia,  64 
Postscutellum,  502 
Potato,  335,  575,  576,  578,  587,  588 
Poultry,  100 
Praescutum,  502 
Praying  Mames,  106 
Predaceous  Diving-beetles,  523 
Premedia,  64 
Preserved  meats,  45 
Prioninae,  568 
Prionids,  568 
Prionoxystus  robiniae,  222 
Prionus,  567  ;    P.  imbricorriis,  569  ; 

P.  laticollis,  568 
Proctotrupidae,  630 
Proctotrupids,  630 
Prolegs,  66 
Promethea  Moth,  354 
Prominents,  263 
Pronotum,  501 
Propodeum,  602 
Prosternum,  501 
Prothorax,  62 

Protoparce  =  Phlegethontius 
Protoplasa  tilchii,  430 
Prune,  577 
Pselaphidae,  531 
Psephenus  lecontei,  543 
Pseudaglossa  lubricalis,  296 
Pseudohazis,  343;  P.  eglanterina,  343; 

P.  hera,  343 
Pseudoscorpiones,  17 
Pseudoscorpions,  17 
Pseudothyatira  cymatophoroides,  292 
Pseudova,  159 
Psilophus  ciliatus,  468 
Psithyrus,  671 
Psocidae,  98 
Psocids,  98 
Psyche,  220 
Psychidae,  219 
Psychoda,  429 
Psychodidae,  428 
Psychomorpha  epimenis,  315 
Psylla  pyricola,  156 


Psyllidae,  155 

Pteromalus  puparum,  629 

Pteronarcys  regalis,  94 

Pterophoridae,  237 

Pterosticus  lucublandus,  521 

Ptilinum,  419 

Ptinidae,  553 

Pulex  irritans,  492 

Pulicidae,  492 

Pulvilli,  63 

Pulvilliform,  420 

Pulvinaria,    168,  237  ;   P.  innumera- 

bilis,  169 
Pumpkin,  535 
Punkies,  441 
Pupa,  54 

Pupa-bearing  Flies,  419 
Puparium,  415 
Pupipara,  419,  488 
Pyralididae,  232 
Pyralidina,  228 
Pyralids,  228 
Pyralids,  the  Typical,  232 
Pyralis   costalis,    233  ;    P.    farinalis* 

233 

Pyrameis  =  Vanessa 
Pyraustidae,  230 
Pyraustids,  230 
Pyrethrum,  100 
Pyrgus  =  Hesperia 
Pyrochroidae,  586 
Pyromorpha  dimidiata,  226 
Pyromorphidae,  226 
Pyrophila  =  Amphipyra 
Pyrrharctia  isabella,  322 
Pyrrhocoridae,  141 
Pythidae,  585 

Queens,  96 

Race  prejudice,  3 

Radish,  578 

Radius,  64 

Ranatra,  131 

Raphidia,  179 

Raphidians,  178 

Raphidiidae,  178 

Raspberry,  146,  218,  292,  578 

Raspberry  Fruit-worm,  541 

Raspberry  Geometer,  288 

Red  Admiral,  401 

Red-ant,  643 

Red-bug  Family,  141 

Red  Cedar,  220,  393 

Red-humped  Apple-worm,  267 

Red-legged  Locust,  no 


696 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Red  Milkweed-beetles,  574 
Red-necked  Agrilus,  550 
Red  Scale  of  California,  174 
Red  Spider,  43 
Red  Spoiled  Purple,  406 
.Reduviidae,  137 
Regal-moth,  346 
Reproductive  organs,  69,  76 
Resin-gnat,  447 
Respiratory  system.  73 
Resplendent  Shield-bearer,  254 
Retinia  comstockiana,  242 
Retinia  frustrana,  243 
Rhagium  lineatum,  569 
Rhamphomyia,  467 
Rheumaptera  =  Plemyria 
Rhinoceros-beetles,  562 
Rhipiceridae,  544 
Rhipiphoridse,  589 
Rhizobius  lactucae,  159 
Rhodites  rosae,  621 
Rhogas  parasiticus,  625 
Rhynchites  bicolor,  591 
Rhynchitidae,  591 
Rhynchocephalus  sackeni,  460 
Rhynchophora,  499,  590 
Rhyphidae,  448 
Rhyphus,  449 
Rhyssodidae,  537 
Ribbed  Pine-borer,  569 
Rice-weevil,  596 
Robber-flies,  460 
Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  1 10 
Rose-bugs,  561 
Rose  Leaf-hopper,  154 
Roses,  154,  561,  591,  592,  613 
Rose-slug,  613 
Rosy  Dryocampa,  349 
Rosy-striped  Oak-worm,  348 
Rotten  wood,  584,  586 
Rough  Flower-beetle,  565 
Round  Goldenrod  Gall,  486 
Round-headed     Apple-tree     Borer, 

572 

Rove-beetles,  532 
Royal- moths,  343 
Rumex  acetosella,  390;  R.  crispus, 

390 
Running  Spiders,  40 

Sack-bearing  Frenulum-losers,  357 
Sacred  Beetle,  557 
Saddle-back  Caterpillar,  225 
Sad  Flower-beetle,  566 
Salda,  134 
Saldidce,  134 


Salt-marsh  Caterpillar,  321 

Samia  californica,  357;  S.  cecropia, 

356;  S.  gloved,  357 
Samia  =  Philosamia 
Sand-crickets,  115 
Sannina   exitiosa,    260;    S.    pacifica, 

261 

Saperda  Candida,  573 
Sapygidae,  649 
Sapygids,  649 
Sarcophaginae,  482 
Sarcopsylla  penetrans,  493 
Saturnians,  339 
Saturniidae,  350 
Saturniina,  339 
Satyrinae,  410 
Satyrodes  eurydice,  411 
Satyrs,  410 
Satyrus  —  Cercyonis 
Saw-flies,  6n 
Sawyer,   572 
Scale-bugs,  164 
Scales  of  Lepidoptera,  191 
Scalloped  Owlet,  302 
Scallop-shell  Moth,  284 
Scaphidiidae,  533 
Scarabaeidae,  556 
Scarabaeids,  556 
Scarred  Snout-beetles,  592 
Scatophaga,  485 
Scenopinidae,  465 

Scenopinus,  465;    S.  fenestralis,  466 
Scent-glands,  373 
Scent-organ,  370,  380 
Scepsis  fulvicollis,  327 
Schizoneura      imbricator,     161;      S. 

lanigera,    162;    S.    tessellata,    161, 

391 

Schizophora,  419 
Sciara,  443 

Sciara  Army-worm,  443 
Sciara  mali,  443 
Sclerite,  57 

Scoleopteryx  libatrix,  302 
Scoliidae,  649 
Scoliids,  649 
Scolops,  152 
Scolytidae,   596 
Scorias  spongiosum,  161 
Scorpion-flies,  184 
Scorpionida,  15 
Scorpions,  12.  15 
Screw-worm  Fly,  483 
Scurfy  Bark-louse,  174 
Scutelleridae,  146 
Scutellum,  502 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


697 


Scutum,  502 

Scydmaenidae,  531 

Searcher,  519 

Seirodonta  bilineata,  266 

Semi-aquatic  Bugs,  124 

Sericaria  —  Bombyx 

Serpentine  mines,  249 

Serphus  dilatatus,  132 

Serrate,  Go 

Serricornia,  497 

Sesia  tipuliformis,  261 

Sesiidae,  259 

Sesiids,  259 

Setaceous,  60 

Shade-trees,  223,  275,  310 

Shed-builder  Ant,  643 

Sheep  Bot-fly,  478 

Sheep-tick,  43,  488 

Shellac,  166 

Shield-backed  Bugs,  146 

Shield-backed  Grasshoppers,  115 

Shining  Leaf-chafers,  561 

Ship-timber  Beetle,  553 

Shore-bugs,  134 

Short-horned  Bugs,  124 

Short-horned  Grasshoppers,  108 

Short-horned  Orthorrhapha,  417 

Short-tongued  Bees,  665 

Shrimps,  n 

Shrubs,  292,   351 

Sialidae,  176 

Silk,  22 

Silk-worm,  340 

Silpha,  531 

Silphidae,  529 

Silvanus  surinamensis,  538 

Silver-spotted  Skipper,  370 

Similar-winged  Owlets,  296 

Simple  Eyes,  59 

Simuliidae,  451 

Simulium,  451;  S.  innoxium,  453;  S. 

meridionale,    453;    S.     molestum, 

453;  S.  pecuarum,  453 
Siphonaptera,  490 
Siphuncles,  67 
Sirex,  615 
Siricidae,  614 
Sitodrepa  panicea,  553 
Skeleton,  67 
Skiff  Caterpillar,  224 
Skin-beetles,  559 
Skins,  538 

Skippers,  195,  206,  364,  486 
Skippers  with  a  Costal  Fold,  369 
Skippers  with  a  Discal  Patch,  372 
Slave-ant,  641 


Slavemaker-ant,  640 

Slug-caterpillar  Moths,  223 

Smaller  Empty  Oak-apple,  619 

Small-headed  Flies,  458 

Small  intestine,  71 

Small  Metal-mark,  394 

Smerinthus  geminatus,  333 

Smoky-moths,  226 

Snake-doctors,  90 

Snakehead,  399 

Snipe-flies,  456 

Snout-beetles,  590 

Snout  Butterfly,  397 

Snowberry,  338,  339 

Snow-flea,  85 

Snowy  Tree-cricket,  114,  118 

Social  Bees,  672 

Social  Wasps,  660 

Soldier-flies,  455 

Soldiers,  96 

Solitary  Long-tongued  Bees,  667 

Solitary-midge,  449 

Solitary  Wasps,  658 

Sooty-wing,  372 

Sores,  483 

Sorrel,  390 

Southern  Buffalo-gnat,  453 

Southern  Cloudy-wing,  371 

Sovereigns,  406 

Sow-bugs,  12 

Spanish  Bayonet,  367 

Spathegaster,  618 

Spear-marked  Black,  283 

Spear-winged  Flies,  469 

Specialized,  200 

Specialized  Frenatae,  204 

Specialized  Macrofrenatae,  205 

Species,  3 

Sphaeriidae,  533 

Spheerophthalma  occidentalis,  648 

Sphecidae,  650 

Sphecina,  644 

Sphecids,  650 

Sphecius  speciosus,  653 

Sphenophorus,  596 

Sphindidae,  554 

Sphingicampabicolor,  347 

Sphingidae,  329 

Sphinx  chersis,  334 

Sphinxes,  329 

Sphyracephala  brevicornis,  486 

Spiders,  12,  20,  651 

Spider-wasps,  650 

Spilosoma  virginica,  322 

Spindles,  90 

Spinnerets,  22 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


Spinning  organs,  22 

Spinning  tubes,  22 

Spiny  Oak  slug,  224 

Spiny  Oak-worm,  348 

Spiracles,  13,  73 

Spittle  Insects,  152 

Spondylidae,  566 

Spongy  Oak-apple,  618 

Spotted  Cut-worm,  306 

Spotted  Pelidnota,  562 

Spotted  Thyris,  329 

Spring  Azure,  391 

Spring  Canker-worm,  275 

Spring-tails,  82,  84 

Sprinkled  Locust,  in 

Squash,  535,  577 

Squash-bug,  144 

Squash-bug  Family,  143 

Squash-vine  Borer,  262 

Stable-fly,  482 

Stag-beetles,  554 

Staphylinidae,  532 

Staphylinus  maculosus,   533;  S.  vul- 

pinus,  533 

Steel-blue  Flea-beetle,  578 
Stem-eyed  Fly,  486 
Stemmata,  59 
Stem-mother,  159 
Stenopelmatus,  115 
Stephanidae,  624 
Stephanids,  624 
Sternum,  501 
Sterrhidae,  286 
Sterrhids,  286 
Stiletto-flies,  464 
Stilt-bugs,  143 
Sting,  66 

Stinging  Hymenoptera,  601,  631 
Stink-bug  Family,  144 
Stipes,  500 
Stizinae,  653 
Stomach,  71 

Stomoxys  calcitrans,  482 
Stone-flies,  93 

Straight-bodied  Prionid,  569 
Straight-seamed  Flies,  427 
Stratiomyia,  456 
Stratiomyiidae,  455 
Strawberry-weevil,  594 
Strepsiptera,  589 
Striped  Blister-beetle,  589 
Striped  Diabrotica,  577 
Striped  Flea-beetle,  578 
Striped  Footman,  325 
Style,  419 
Stylopidae,  589 


Stylops,  590 

Subclasses 

Subcosta,  64  ;-. 

Subfamily,  5 

Subgalea,  500 

Subgenus,  5 

Submarginal  cells,  607 

Submentum,  501 

Suborder,  5 

Subspecies,  5 

Subspecific  names,  7 

Sugar,  45 

Sugar-cane  Beetle,  563 

Sugar- maples,  570 

Sunflower,  wild,  581 

Superfamily,  5 

Superior  lobe,  500 

Superorder,  5 

Sutures,  57 

Swallow-tails,  375,  376 

Sweet-brier,  621 

Sweet-gale,  284 

Sweet-potato,  580 

Sweet-potato  Root-borer,  595 

Swifts,  215 

Symphasis,  179 

Symphoricarpus,   339 

Synchke  olyrnpia,  385 

Synchlora  glaucana,  288 

Synopsis  of  the  Coleoptera,  496;  of 
the  Heteroptera,  124;  of  the  Hy- 
menoptera, 601 ;  of  the  Lepidop- 
tera,  204;  of  the  Orthoptera,  105 

Syringa,  363 

Syrphidae,  470 

Syrphus,  472 

Syrphus-flies,  470 

Tabanidae,  453 

Tabanus,  454;  T.  atratus,  455 

Table  for  determining  the  families 
of  the  Coleoptera,  505;  of  the 
Heteroptera,  125;  of  the  Homop- 
tera,  148;  of  the  Hymenoptera, 
607;  of  the  Lepidoptera,  207;  of 
the  Neuroptera,  175;  of  the  Sphe- 
cina,  646;  of  Spiders,  26 

Table  of  the  Classes  of  the  Arthro- 
pod a,  10 

Table  of  the  Orders  of  the  Arach- 
nida,  14;  of  the  Hexapoda,  77 

Table  of  the  Suborders  of  the  Hemip- 
tera,  123;  of  the  Thysanura,  83 

Tachina-flies,  481 

Tachininae,  481 

Tailed  Blue,  392 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


699 


Tailed  Whip-scorpions,  18 

Tailless  Whip-scorpions,  19 

Tangle-veined  Flies,  459 

Tarantula-hawk,  650 

Tarantulas,  27,  650 

Tarsus,  13,  62 

Tegulae,  421,  602 

Telamona,  155 

Telea  polyphemus,  352 

Tenebrio  molitor,  583 

Tenebrionidse,  582 

Tent-caterpillar  of  the  Forest,  362 

Tent-caterpillars,  359,  360 

Tenthredinidae,  611 

Tentiform  mines,  250 

Terebrantia,  610 

Tergum,  501 

Terias  =  Eurema  and  Xanthidia 

Termes  flavipes,  96;  T.  gilvus,  97 

Termites,  95 

Termitidae,  95 

Tetracha,  518 

Tetraopes,  574;  T.  tetraophthalmus, 

574 

Tettix,  in 

Thalessa,  623;  T.  lunator,  623 
Thanaos  bathyllus,  371;  T.  martialis, 

371 

Thecesternus  humeralis,  591 
Thecla,  392;   see  also   Atlides,  Eu- 

psyche,  Incisalia,  and  Mitoura 
Thecla  calanus,  392 
The  Least  Skipper,  373 
Thelyphonidae,  18 
Thelyphonus  giganteus,  18 
Theory  of  descent,  2 
Theraphosidse,  27 
Thereva,  465 
Therevidae,  464 
Theridiidae,  34 
Thick-head  Flies,  476 
Thistles,  402 
Thomisidae,  40 

Thorax  and  its  appendages,  62 
Thorybes  pylades,  371 
Thread-legged  Bugs,  136 
Thread-waisted  Wasps,  650 
Three-lined  Lema,  575 
Three-spotted  Doryphora,  576 
Thrip,  154 
Thrips,  119 
Throscidae,  548 
Thyalira  scripta,  292 
Thyatiridae  =  Cymatophoridae 
Thyreonotus,  115 
Thyrididae,  328 


Thyridopteryx  ephemeraeformis,  220 
Thyris  lugubris,   329;   T.   maculata, 

329 

Thysanura,  82 
Thysbe  Clear-wing,  338 
Tibia,  13,  62 
Ticks,  43 
Tiger-beetles,  516 
Tiger-moths,  317 
Tiger  Swallow-tail,  378 
Tile-horned  Prionus,  569 
Tinea  biselliella,  258;  T.  pellionella, 

257;  T.  tapetzella,  258 
Tineids,  246 
Tineina,  246 
Tingitidae,  139 
Tiphia  inornata,  649 
Tipula  abdominalis,  431 
Tipulidae,  429 
Tmetocera  ocellana,  241 
Toad-shaped  Bugs,  133 
Toadstools,  583 
Tobacco,  335,  553 
Tobacco-worm,  335 
Toe-biters,   132 
Tolype,  360;  T.  laricis,  363;  T.  vel- 

leda,  362 

Tomatoes,  300,   335 
Tomato-worm,  335 
Tomicus  typographus,  597 
Tortoise-beetles,  580 
Tortricidae,  244 
Tortricids,  239 
Tortricids,  the  Typical,  244 
Tortricina,  239 
Tracheae,  13,  22,  74 
Tracheal  gills,  75 
Tracheal  lungs,  13 
Trap  door  Spiders,  27 
Tree  Crickets,  118 
Tree-hoppers,  154 
Tremex  columba,  615 
Triangle  Spider,  38 
Trichodectes  scalaris,  IOI 
Trichodes  nuttalli,  552 
Trichoptera,  186 
Trichopterygidae,  533 
Trigonalidae,  621 
Trigonalids,  621 
Trigonalys,  621 
Triprocris.  227 
Triptogon  =  Marumba 
Trochanter,  13,  62 
Trochantin,  504 
Trogositidae,  542 
Tropaea  luna,  353 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Tropisternus,    528;    T.    calif ornicus, 

528;  T.  glaber,  528 
Trox,  559 

True  Brachycera,  418 
True  Bugs,  123 
True  Crickets,  117 
True  Nematocera,  417 
True  Wasps,  657 
Trumpet  mines,  249 
Trypeta  pomonella,  486;  T.  solida- 

ginis,  486 
Trypetinae,  485 
Trypoxylon  frigidum,  657 
Tube-building  Clothes-moth,  258 
Tube  Weavers  in  part,  29,  30 
Tumble-bugs,  556,  558 
Turkey,  101 
Turkey-gnat,  453 
Turnips,  371,  578 
Turnus  Form,  378 
Tussock-moths.  308 
Twelve-spotted  Diabrotica,  577 
Twin-spotted  Sphinx,  333 
Two-colored  Footman,  325 
Two-colored  Royal-moth,  346 
Two-lined  Parallelia.   298 
Two-lined  Prominent,  266 
Two-spotted  Oberea,  573 
Typical  Ants,  640 
Typical  Cerambycids,  569 
Typical  Coleoptera,  496,  515 
Typical  Muscids,  482 
Typical  Nymphalids,  398 

Ugly-nest  Tortricids,  244 
Uloboridae,  38 
Uloborids,  38 
Uloborus,  39 

Umbelliferous  plants,  377 
Under  lip,  61 
Under  wing,  298,  303 
Upper  lip,  61 
Urtica,  403 
Utetheisa  bella,  319 

Vanessa,  401;    see   also   Aglais  and 

Euvanessa 
Vanessa    atalanta,    401;    V.    cardui, 

402;  V.  huntera,  401 
Vanessids,  401 
Variegated  Fritillary,  400 
Variegated  Tessellate,  372 
Vedalia,  166,  535 
Veliidae,  134 
Velleda  Lappet,  362 
Velvet-ants,  648 
Vespa,  662 


Vespidze,  660 

Vespina,  657 

Viburnum,  338 

Viceroy,  407 

Vine,  336 

Vine-loving  Pomace-fly,  487 

Violet  Tip,  405 

Virginia-creeper,  226,  228,   303,  313, 

315,  337 

Virginian  Buprestid,  549 
Volucella,  472 

Walking-sticks,  108 

Walnut,  353 

Wanderer,  390 

Wasps,  589,  590 

Water- boatmen,  129 

Water-scavenger  Beetles,  527 

Water-scorpions,  130 

Water-striders,  135 

Wax,  166,  234 

Wedge-shaped  Leaf-beetles,  579 

Weevils,  593 

Well-marked  Tussock-moth,  311 

Western  Crickets,  115 

Wheat,  153 

Wheat-midge,  447 

Whip-scorpions,  17 

Whirligig-beetles,  525 

White-ants,  95 

White-blotch  Oak-leaf  Miner,  250 

White  grubs,  649 

White-lined  Sphinx,  337 

White-marked  Tussock-moth,  310 

White-M  Hair-streak,  394 

White  Mountain  Butterfly,  412 

White  pine,  246 

Whites,  382 

White-striped  Black,  283 

White-tipped  Moth,  266 

Willow,  223,  224,  268,  334,  403,  406, 

612 

Window-flies,  465 
Window-winged  Moths,  328 
Wings,  63 
Wing-veins,  603 
Winter  eggs,  159 
Witch-hazel,  308 
Witch-hazel  Dagger,  308 
Wood-nymph  Moths,  313 
Woolly  Aphids,  161 
Woolly-louse  of  the  Apple,  162 
Workers,  96 
Worms,  9 
Wormy  apples,  241 
Wounds,  483 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


701 


Xanthidia  nicippe,  386 
Xenos,  590 

Xylocopa  virginica,  670 
Xylophagus,  457,  458 

Yeast-cakes,  236 
Yellow-bear,  322 
Yellows,  385 
Yucca,  367 
Yucca-borer,  367 


Zaitha,  132 
Zebra.  Caterpillar,  305 
Zebra  Swallow-tail,  379 
Zerene  csesonia,  386 
Zeuzera  pyrina,  223 
Zimmermann's  Pine-pest,  236 
Zoological  classification,  I 
Zoological  nomenclature,  5 
Zygaenidse,  326 
Zygaenids,  326 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


3198? 


DE.C141988 


Form  L9-Series  444 


>/ 


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'N'IVFR.V/A 


000865438     6 


